Current Molecular Medicine - Volume 6, Issue 6, 2006

NK cells are critical effector cells of the innate immune response to malignancy and infection. These cells have a wide array of direct antiviral activities and have been critically implicated in the regulation and induction of an effective adaptive immune response. Although the pivotal role of this cell subset in the context of a number of viral infections is well established, the role of NK cells in HIV-1 infection is less well understood. Recent data has demonstrated the association between an NK cell receptor, KIR3DS1, and it's ligand, HLA-Bw4 with an isoleucine at position 80, and slower disease progression. This data suggests that NK cells may play an essential role in the control of HIV-1 disease, and has provided the impetus to begin to better understand the role of this cell subset in the context of HIV-1 infection, replication, and pathogenesis. Here we present a review of the literature pertaining to both the effect of HIV-1 infection on NK cell activity and the potential role that this subset of cells may play in controlling HIV-1 disease.

Dysregulation of T lymphocyte function underpins the development of autoimmune and allergic diseases. These autoantigen-, or allergen-reactive pathogenic T cells are rare within the entire immune repertoire and it is therefore desirable to develop more specific therapies than are currently in use to directly target these cells and avoid adverse side effects. The obvious approach is to use the antigens that are recognized to impose a state of T cell tolerance. T cells recognize antigens as peptide fragments and we can therefore produce the relevant antigens as synthetic peptides. It has been known for many years that the decision of the T cell to mount a productive response (immunity) or to remain silent (tolerance) is controlled by the form in which the antigen is administered. Antigen with adjuvant leads to immunity, whereas soluble antigen without adjuvant leads to tolerance. This paradigm has been used successfully to induce tolerance with soluble peptides, preventing several animal models of autoimmune and allergic disease. These findings obviously have exciting potential for translation to human diseases. However, the basic immune mechanisms that lead to tolerance versus immunity are only beginning to be unravelled. The “effector” phase of tolerance also remains controversial with evidence for T cell death, anergy and the development of immunoregulatory function. This latter possibility of specifically generating autoantigen- or allergen-reactive regulatory T cells is particularly attractive. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of the requirements for tolerance induction and the potential for establishing dominant immune-regulation with peptide therapy.

Astrocytomas represent the most common form of glial tumors. The most malignant grade of these tumors, glioblastoma multiforme, may arise as a malignant progression from low-grade astrocytoma through anaplastic astrocytoma to secondary GBM, or else it may arise “de novo” as primary GBM. Both types of glioblastoma are usually histologically indistinguishable. However, distinct molecular alterations have been described between them that potentially allow differentiation between the two mechanisms of origin. Since malignant transformation is a multistep process, we summarize in this review the earliest genetic changes that seem to be involved in the appearance and development of low-grade astrocytic tumors, where early detection and treatment could be possible.

Nanotechnologies, defined as techniques aimed to conceive, characterize and produce material at the nanometer scale, represent a fully expanding domain, and one can predict without risk that production and utilization of nanomaterials will increase exponentially in the coming years. Applications of nanotechnologies are numerous, in constant development, and their potential use in the medical field as diagnosis and therapeutics tools is very attractive. The size particularity of these nanomaterials gives them novel properties, allowing them to adopt new comportments because of the laws of quantum physics that exist at this scale. However, worries are expressed regarding the exact properties that make these nanomaterials attractive, and questions are raised regarding their potential toxicity, their long-term secondary effects or their biodegradability, particularly when thinking of their use in the (nano)medical field. These questions are justified by the knowledge of the toxic effects of atmospheric pollution micrometric particles on health, and the fear to get an amplification of these effects because of the size of the materials blamed. In this paper, we first expose the sensed medical applications of nanomaterials, and the physicochemical and molecular determinants potentially responsible for nanomaterials biological effects. Finally, we present a synthesis of the actual knowledge regarding toxicological effects of nanomaterials. It is clear that, in regard to the almost empty field of what is known on the subject, there's an urge to better understand biological effects of nanomaterials, which will allow their safe use, in particular in the nanomedicine field.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is unique among malignancies since it represents an accumulation of B-lymphocytes resistant to apoptosis. Several factors are thought to confer this unusual feature to a CLL B-cell. Misbalance between cytoplasmic pro-survival and pro-death molecules, such as Bcl-2, Mcl-1 and alike, appears to be one of the key factors defining B-cell longevity. Autocrine pathways, such as vascular endothelial growth factor-receptor pathway, also contribute to survival. The role of B-cell receptor (BCR) is less straightforward. In the last decade it became clear that CLL does not constitute a uniform disease, but, based on the prevalence of mutations in the BCR heavy chain (IgVH), can be classified into two distinct subgroups. Several molecular markers correlate with IgVH mutations. Some of them, like zeta-chain associated protein kinase, are also involved in BCR signaling and influence cell cycle. Yet the primary pathogenic event leading to increased proliferation and survival in CLL is difficult to ascertain. Molecules involved in BCR signaling pathways and cytoplasmic pro-survival players probably act in concert to confer resistance to apoptosis. In this respect, the role of the B-CLL environment, which includes nurse-like cells and T-cells, cannot be underestimated. Nurse-like cells provide stimuli necessary for perpetuation of life in CLL. On the other hand, abnormal T-cell function, whether it is excessive immunosuppression delivered by regulatory T-cells or insufficient anti-tumor immunity rendered by Thelpers, allows malignant CLL cells to go unnoticed by the cellular immune system.

The endogenous cannabinoid system has revealed potential avenues to treat many disease states. Medicinal indications of cannabinoid drugs including compounds that result in enhanced endocannabinoid responses (EER) have expanded markedly in recent years. The wide range of indications covers chemotherapy complications, tumor growth, addiction, pain, multiple sclerosis, glaucoma, inflammation, eating disorders, age-related neurodegenerative disorders, as well as epileptic seizures, traumatic brain injury, cerebral ischemia, and other excitotoxic insults. Indeed, a great effort has led to the discovery of agents that selectively activate the cannabinoid system or that enhance the endogenous pathways of cannabinergic signaling. The endocannabinoid system is comprised of three primary components: (i) cannabinoid receptors, (ii) endocannabinoid transport system, and (iii) hydrolysis enzymes that break down the endogenous ligands. Two known endocannabinoids, anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), are lipid molecules that are greatly elevated in response to a variety of pathological events. This increase in endocannabinoid levels is suggested to be part of an on-demand compensatory response. Furthermore, activation of signaling pathways mediated by the endogenous cannabinoid system promotes repair and cell survival. Similar cell maintenance effects are elicited by EER through inhibitors of the endocannabinoid deactivation processes (i.e., internalization and hydrolysis). The therapeutic potential of the endocannabinoid system has yet to be fully determined, and the number of medical maladies that may be treated will likely continue to grow. This review will underline studies that demonstrate medicinal applications for agents that influence the endocannabinoid system.

Carcinomas are composed of parenchymal and stromal elements, and the malignant behavior is principally dictated by the cancer cells. However, the malignant tumors not merely grow into a preexisting interstitial tissue, but they actively form a new stroma and modify their composition. Thus, the tumor stroma is significantly different from that of the neighboring tissues. Cancer cells may alter their stroma by cell-to-cell contact, soluble factors or by modification of the extracellular matrix (ECM), they induce myofibroblast differentiation and govern the desmoplastic stroma reaction. On the other hand, the stromal cells (especially the myofibroblasts) are able to modify the phenotype, invasiveness, metastatic capacity of carcinomas, typically promoting the progression. Regarding pancreatic cancer, the pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) seem to be the key elements in the cross-talk between the parenchymal cells and the desmoplastic stroma. The tumor stroma is also rich in tumorassociated macrophages (TAM), but their role in the malignant process is contradictory and may be different in various tumor types, but most studies suggest a negative impact on the tumor growth. The relationship between the parenchymal and stromal elements is highly complex, they mutually alter their characteristics. Because the neostroma of the carcinomas largely seems to promote the invasiveness of the malignant tumors, novel therapeutic strategies are being evaluated targeting the stromal elements, with some encouraging, but still fragmentary results.

Complex diseases, such as allergy, diabetes and obesity depend on altered interactions between multiple genes, rather than changes in a single causal gene. DNA microarray studies of a complex disease often implicate hundreds of genes in the pathogenesis. This indicates that many different mechanisms and pathways are involved. How can we understand such complexity? How can hypotheses be formulated and tested? One approach is to organize the data in network models and to analyze these in a top-down manner. Globally, networks in nature are often characterized by a small number of highly connected nodes, while the majority of nodes have few connections. The highly connected nodes serve as hubs that affect many other nodes. Such hubs have key roles in the network. In yeast cells, for example, deletion of highly connected proteins is associated with increased lethality, compared to deletion of less connected proteins. This suggests the biological relevance of networks. Moving down in the network structure, there may be sub-networks or modules with specific functions. These modules may be further dissected to analyze individual nodes. In the context of DNA microarray studies of complex diseases, geneinteraction networks may contain modules of co-regulated or interacting genes that have distinct biological functions. Such modules may be linked to specific gene polymorphisms, transcription factors, cellular functions and disease mechanisms. Genes that are reliably active only in the context of their modules can be considered markers for the activity of the modules and may thus be promising candidates for biomarkers or therapeutic targets. This review aims to give an introduction to network theory and how it can be applied to microarray studies of complex diseases.