Current Drug Therapy - Volume 20, Issue 3, 2025

The nasolacrimal channels drain the medication from the pre-corneal area, causing the majority of the ophthalmic medication to be quickly removed following topical instillation. Over the past thirty years, newer medical techniques, such as in situ gel, nanoparticle, liposome, nanosuspension, microemulsion, iontophoresis, and occuserts have been created in an effort to overcome these challenges. These methods gradually and deliberately boost the drug's bioavailability. This article discusses ocular drug delivery for ophthalmics and its ideal characteristics, and also provides an insight on the use of nanotechnology in the form of nanoparticles used for the treatment of glaucoma in the eyes, employing HPH, ultrasonication/HSH, SE, SED technique, SFM, ME technique, SD method, DE method, PM, FUD, and other techniques to offer continuous and controlled IOP inside the eye chamber, make drug more ocularly bioavailable, and address a few pharmacological difficulties in ophthalmology. The creation of new drug delivery methods is currently gaining popularity, and this can facilitate the development of medicines for diseases that endanger eyesight.

The emergence and spread of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) pose a grave threat to global public health. In the pursuit of innovative solutions, targeting the immune cell CD4 receptors (iCD4) has gained momentum as a potential strategy for combating AMR. This abstract explores drug delivery strategies aimed at harnessing iCD4 receptors to enhance the efficacy of antimicrobial therapies. The CD4 receptor, primarily found on the surface of T-helper lymphocytes, plays a pivotal role in immune responses. Recent research has revealed that iCD4 receptors are also expressed on other immune cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, which are integral in the host's defense against pathogens. Leveraging these receptors as drug targets opens new avenues for the precise delivery of antimicrobial agents. Various drug delivery systems, including nanoparticles, liposomes, and antibody-drug conjugates, can be engineered to specifically target iCD4 receptors. These carriers offer improved drug stability, controlled release, and reduced side effects. Furthermore, the functionalization of these carriers with ligands that bind selectively to iCD4 receptors ensures targeted drug delivery to infected tissues. In summary, drug delivery strategies that target iCD4 receptors hold immense promise for combatting AMR. By delivering antimicrobial agents directly to immune cells involved in the host defense, we can potentially enhance therapeutic efficacy, reduce side effects, and mitigate the emergence of resistance. This approach represents a promising avenue for the development of innovative treatments to address the urgent global challenge of antimicrobial resistance.

This in-depth analysis examines the revolutionary potential of nanostructures, particularly niosomes, in boosting Clotrimazole's therapeutic effectiveness for dermatological applications. A common antifungal drug called clotrimazole suffers significant problems with solubility, bioavailability, and penetration. Niosomal gels in particular, which are nanostructured drug carriers, have emerged as ground-breaking approaches to overcome these constraints. The study opens with an explanation of the mechanisms of action of Clotrimazole and its wide range of therapeutic uses in dermatology, emphasising the limitations of standard formulations. We present and explore niosomes, lipid-based nanocarriers with diverse characteristics. They provide a viable substrate for improved Clotrimazole administration due to their biocompatibility, adjustable lipid composition, and capacity to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic medications. The creation and development of clotrimazole-loaded niosomal gels are at the core of the review. Numerous preparation processes are investigated, and elements affecting the formation of niosomal gel, such as lipid content and optimization strategies, are reviewed. Particle size analysis and encapsulation efficiency testing are two methods for characterising these gels that are covered in depth. The effectiveness of Clotrimazole-loaded niosomal gels is validated in large part by in vitro and in vivo tests. The review explores in vitro drug release investigations, studies of skin permeability and penetration, and comparisons with conventional formulations. When accessible, preclinical and clinical trial insights provide crucial clinical context. The benefits of clotrimazole-loaded niosomal gels, such as greater patient compliance and improved drug delivery, are also covered in the article. It solves difficulties including stability issues and regulatory issues. The review's conclusion emphasises the essential role that nanostructures and niosomes have played in developing Clotrimazole medicines for dermatological usage. It provides a thorough review of current developments, exciting new approaches, and the wider effects of this ground-breaking medication delivery strategy.

Globally, lung cancer ranks among the most frequent forms of tumor. The survival rate for people suffering from lung tumors after five years is only 20%, despite novel treatment options such as immunotherapy. Current therapies cause severe off-target effects and acquired drug resistance to explain the low survival rate. Identifying and developing new therapeutic approaches for lung cancer patients is crucial to improving the standard of care. As a result of the study, we researched clinical trials and experiments in fundamental research, and new approaches to drug delivery including adenoviruses, nanoparticles, and proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs). Several approaches can now be applied directly to lung cancer to prevent disease progression, including phosphatases, targeting protein kinases, protein modifications and ubiquitin ligases. In addition, the recent approval of Ribonucleic acid (RNA) based vaccines based on lipid nanoparticle technology has made it possible to improve current lung cancer treatments by combining chemo- and immunotherapies. This review emphasises recent advancements in pharmaceutical research aimed at developing technologies to target post-translational modifications in lung tumorigenesis. Elucidation of various scientific advances in conjunction with encouraging findings concerning therapies available, the future perspectives and challenges of nanocarriers for effective lung cancer are also presented in this article.

Currently, a significant proportion of older individuals have demonstrated connections between Parkinson's disease (PD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Emerging evidence from cohort studies, clinical data, and preclinical meta-analyses reveals that T2DM patients have an increased risk of developing PD, often accompanied by more severe disease progression. These two chronic conditions are believed to share common pathways. The pathways that likely connect the neurodegenerative process of PD include autophagy, mitochondrial dysfunction, dysregulated insulin signaling, inflammation, and insulin resistance. Preclinical PD models highlight the importance of cerebral insulin signaling, which confers numerous neuroprotective benefits. Several ongoing phase II and phase III trials are being conducted in PD-affected populations. These trials reflect the potential of existing anti-diabetic medications to improve PD motor symptoms and halt the progression of neurodegeneration. Brain insulin resistance plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology of PD. The insulin signaling pathway represents a promising novel target for disease modification in both diabetic and non-diabetic PD. Incretin receptors in the brain have emerged as the most promising targets for repurposing existing drugs in PD treatment. Targeting these receptors mitigates inflammation, apoptosis, toxic protein aggregation, long-term potentiation, autophagy, and insulin signaling failure.

Presently, various novel anti-diabetic targets are available that can regulate the insulin signaling pathway in dopaminergic neurons, suggesting improvements in cognitive function and significant neuroprotective effects in PD. Throughout neurodegenerative processes, insulin and incretins exert therapeutic effects in multiple manners. Preclinical studies have demonstrated that glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists reduce neuroinflammation, tau phosphorylation, and amyloid deposition while increasing synaptic function and enhancing memory formation. Incretin mimetics may act through the restoration of insulin signaling pathways, inducing further neuroprotective effects.

This review examined the reported shared cellular and molecular pathologies between PD and T2DM, and explored the repurposing of anti-diabetic drugs for the prevention of PD progression through the regulation of insulin signaling pathways.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a prominent area of study within the field of neurology, particularly neurodegenerative disease (ND). The peak incidence of PD occurs in those over the age of 45, and the disease’s prevalence rises continuously with age, the incidence of PD has skyrocketed over the world. A slow decline in neural function characterizes NDs, but the pathophysiological mechanisms behind this decline remain elusive. Because the pathophysiological mechanisms behind neurodegeneration are intricate, the clinical issue of finding efficient, multi-target treatments still exists. Furthermore, adequate neuroprotective medicines are currently scarce, necessitating the development of new therapeutic agents. There is currently no medicine for PD that is without side effects. The ability of natural flavonoids to lower the risk of PD has contributed to an increase in their popularity in recent years, models both in vivo and in vitro. Flavonoids are multi-target natural substances that affect distinct pathogenic pathways in neurodegeneration. As a result, the emphasis has turned to discovering natural product inhibitors for the treatment of PD. The majority of the results pointed to flavonoids' beneficial role in the treatment of PD and no adverse events were reported. This review offered scientific data on the protective and preventative functions of flavonoids. It has been demonstrated that flavonoids have a neuroprotective effect by activating anti-apoptotic mechanisms that target mitochondrial dysfunction and produce neurotrophic factors. In addition to having antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and protective dopaminergic neurons. Even though no evidence using flavonoids as a treatment might reverse the abnormal phenotypes of PD patients, it was also indicated that flavonoids might be promising natural remedies for PD prevention and could be used as therapeutic agents against PD.

It was asserted that the manufacturing of liposomes, which was first disclosed in 1961, was a useful technology for drug encapsulation. Furthermore, there are several cosmetic items on the market now that include liposomes. The liposomes are novel drug carrier systems due to their similarity in lipid composition with the epidermal membrane. As a result, they penetrate the epidermis to a greater extent, showing enhanced skin absorption and increased effectiveness of the encapsulated drug molecule.

This review briefly addresses the skin's anatomy, skin conditions, and the topical delivery of drugs for the treatment of skin diseases with emphasis on psoriasis by utilizing liposomes and other vesicular drug delivery systems along with challenges and opportunities in the treatment of skin diseases.

When compared to alternative distribution methods, their resemblance to biological membranes enables entry into the epidermal barrier. Liposomes are good at penetrating the skin more deeply and reducing therapeutic side effects, which offers hope for the successful treatment of skin problems.

Applying liposomes topically has several benefits, including better skin bioavailability and targeting, increased skin hydration by surface adhesiveness, protection of skin structure from external stress, and prolonged dermal release. Further, they have got potential to target the encapsulated drug molecule into pilosebaceous structure, making them an ideal candidate for the treatment of hair follicles and sebaceous gland disorder.

Gold Nanoparticles (GNPs) have emerged as a novel technology in the field of targeted delivery systems, offering promising solutions for site-specific disease treatment. These nanoparticles possess unique physicochemical properties, such as controlled size, shape, and surface chemistry, which enable precise manipulation for enhanced therapeutic efficacy. The biocompatibility and ease of functionalization of GNPs facilitate the conjugation with various biomolecules, including drugs, peptides, and nucleic acids, thereby improving their targeted delivery capabilities. Recent advancements in nanotechnology have leveraged GNPs for the treatment of a range of diseases, particularly in oncology, cardiology, and neurology. In cancer therapy, GNPs can be engineered to target tumor cells selectively, minimizing damage to healthy tissues and reducing side effects. This is achieved through the conjugation of GNPs with tumor-specific ligands, antibodies, or aptamers, which direct the nanoparticles to malignant cells, allowing for localized drug release and improved therapeutic outcomes. Moreover, GNPs exhibit remarkable potential in diagnostic imaging and photothermal therapy. Their unique optical properties, such as surface plasmon resonance, enable their use as contrast agents in imaging techniques, providing high-resolution and real-time monitoring of disease progression. In photothermal therapy, GNPs convert light energy into heat, effectively destroying targeted cells with minimal invasiveness. The development of GNP-based delivery systems also addresses significant challenges in drug resistance and bioavailability. By overcoming biological barriers and enhancing cellular uptake, GNPs improve the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of therapeutic agents. However, despite these advancements, the clinical translation of GNPs faces challenges such as potential toxicity, long-term stability, and regulatory hurdles. In conclusion, gold nanoparticles represent a cutting-edge approach in targeted delivery systems, offering significant potential for site-specific disease treatment. Continued research and innovation are essential to overcome existing challenges and fully realize the clinical applications of GNPs, ultimately revolutionizing precision medicine.

Gold nanoparticles exhibit unique physicochemical and optical properties. The gold nanoparticles have advanced techniques to cure different chronic diseases. Today, gold nanoparticles are aided by photodynamic therapy and radiation therapy as drug carriers. Due to this, researchers now focus on medical sciences to treat various diseases and therapeutic applications. This review provides all the aspects of gold-based nanoparticles, methods, and their pharmacological benefits in different fields of medical sciences. We also discuss various preparation methods and their advantages in pharmaceutical formulations.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a non-fatal, non-communicable, chronic skin inflammatory condition marked by itching, lesions, and skin barrier dysfunction. As per the International Eczema Council, as of 2022, more than 200 million people were suffering from AD, with the disease burden reported highest in children. Environmental factors, genetic predisposition, and lifestyle have been found to be essential factors in triggering the adverse skin response. In this review, we provide a detailed overview of the pathophysiology of AD, how the skin barrier gets altered from normal condition to AD, and the role of genetic defects in Filaggrin protein, affecting the skin barrier function by altering the skin pH and hydration. Also, we highlight the role of toll-like receptors (TLRs) and the altered skin and gut microbiota in inducing chronic inflammatory responses and playing a significant role in the pathogenesis of the disease. Further, we discuss the role of several chemokines and cytokines, which could serve as important prognosis markers for early detection, monitoring the disease progression, and assessing the response to the treatment. We also report the current treatment regime of multimodal therapeutics ranging from topical emollients to topical, oral, and injectable immune modulatory agents. Besides, we discuss the importance of the gut-skin microbiome axis and the increasingly important role of prebiotics in AD treatment.

Obesity is a pressing global public health challenge, recognized as a major risk factor for chronic diseases, such as diabetes, cardiovascular conditions, and cancer. The rising obesity rates necessitate effective and safe therapeutic interventions. Despite the availability of FDA-approved drugs for long-term weight management, these pharmacological treatments often entail significant side effects and high costs, leading to low patient adherence. Consequently, there is an increasing focus on natural anti-obesity agents. β-caryophyllene (BCP) has emerged as a promising candidate, owing to its broad pharmacological properties. This review critically examines recent advancements in understanding BCP's anti-obesity effects, encompassing in vitro, animal, and clinical studies. Key mechanisms by which BCP exerts its effects include modulation of gut microbiota, enhancement of energy expenditure, regulation of metabolic enzymes, and inhibition of lipid synthesis and absorption. These insights lay the groundwork for the potential development of BCP-based dietary supplements or pharmaceuticals aimed at combating obesity.