Skip to content
2000
Volume 26, Issue 3
  • ISSN: 1568-0266
  • E-ISSN: 1873-4294

Abstract

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most lethal kind of illness, causing the cancer to spread to other regions of the body and eventually resulting in death. The lack of licensed, targeted drugs that can completely eliminate TNBC is a challenge to the present level of therapeutic options. Developing novel uses for already-approved drugs expedites the lengthy and expensive process of creating new ones. Drug repositioning has been made possible by developments in cheminformatics, genomics, and systems biology. Here we provide what is presumably the first thorough taxonomy of approaches to drug repurposing, classifying them into four categories: structure-based, data-mining-based, transcription signature-based, and physiological networks-based. The most relevant studies from preclinical and clinical contexts are highlighted in this review, which focusses on molecular processes and signalling pathways such as adrenergic receptor, androgen receptor, STAT3, nitric oxide (NO) synthase, or AXL. Its main objective is to repurpose existing medications for the treatment of TNBC. We also focus on repurposing and modifying medications that particularly target this cell type in order to combat metastases and recurrence linked to TNBC. The reason for this is that CSCs are very important and may play a major role in tumour aggressiveness and unfavourable clinical outcomes.

© 2026 Bentham Science Publishers
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/ctmc/10.2174/0115680266360882250702093727
2026-01-01
2026-03-10

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/ctmc/10.2174/0115680266360882250702093727
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. DeSantisC.E. MaJ. GaudetM.M. NewmanL.A. MillerK.D. Goding SauerA. JemalA. SiegelR.L. Breast cancer statistics, 2019.CA Cancer J. Clin.201969643845110.3322/caac.21583 31577379
     [Google Scholar]
  2. ValenciaG.A. RiojaP. MoranteZ. RuizR. FuentesH. CastanedaC.A. VidaurreT. NeciosupS. GomezH.L. Immunotherapy in triple-negative breast cancer: A literature review and new advances.World J. Clin. Oncol.202213321923610.5306/wjco.v13.i3.219 35433291
     [Google Scholar]
  3. LiaoM. ZhangJ. WangG. WangL. LiuJ. OuyangL. LiuB. Small-molecule drug discovery in triple negative breast cancer: Current situation and future directions.J. Med. Chem.20216452382241810.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c01180 33650861
     [Google Scholar]
  4. OlssonM. LarssonP. JohanssonJ. SahV.R. ParrisT.Z. Cancer stem cells are prevalent in the basal-like 2 and mesenchymal triple-negative breast cancer subtypes in vitro.Front. Cell Dev. Biol.202311123767310.3389/fcell.2023.1237673 37771376
     [Google Scholar]
  5. SiegelR.L. MillerK.D. JemalA. Cancer statistics, 2018.CA Cancer J. Clin.201868173010.3322/caac.21442 29313949
     [Google Scholar]
  6. BhattacharyaU. KamranM. ManaiM. CristofanilliM. InceT.A. Cell-of-origin targeted drug repurposing for triple-negative and inflammatory breast carcinoma with HDAC and HSP90 inhibitors combined with niclosamide.Cancers202315233210.3390/cancers15020332 36672285
     [Google Scholar]
  7. VitaliF. CohenL.D. DemartiniA. AmatoA. EternoV. ZambelliA. BellazziR. A network-based data integration approach to support drug repurposing and multi-target therapies in triple negative breast cancer.PLoS One2016119e016240710.1371/journal.pone.0162407 27632168
     [Google Scholar]
  8. BandoY KobayashiT MiyakamiY SumidaS KakimotoT SaijoY .Triple-negative breast cancer and basal-like subtype: pathology and targeted therapy.J. Med. Invest202168(3.4)21321910.2152/jmi.68.213
     [Google Scholar]
  9. MasciD. NaroC. PuxedduM. UrbaniA. SetteC. La ReginaG. SilvestriR. Recent advances in drug discovery for triple-negative breast cancer treatment.Molecules20232822751310.3390/molecules28227513 38005235
     [Google Scholar]
  10. SatishK.S. SaraswathyG.R. RiteshG. SaravananK.S. KrishnanA. BhargavaJ. UshnaaK. DsouzaP.L. Exploring cutting-edge strategies for drug repurposing in female cancers – An insight into the tools of the trade.Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci.202420735541510.1016/bs.pmbts.2024.05.002 38942544
     [Google Scholar]
  11. WaksA.G. WinerE.P. Breast cancer treatment: A review.JAMA2019321328830010.1001/jama.2018.19323 30667505
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Ávalos-MorenoM. López-TejadaA. Blaya-CánovasJ.L. Cara-LupiañezF.E. González-GonzálezA. LorenteJ.A. Sánchez-RoviraP. Granados-PrincipalS. Drug repurposing for triple-negative breast cancer.J. Pers. Med.202010420010.3390/jpm10040200 33138097
     [Google Scholar]
  13. ParkJ.H. AhnJ.H. KimS.B. How shall we treat early triplenegative breast cancer (TNBC): From the current standard to upcoming immuno-molecular strategies. ESMO Open,20183e000357.(Suppl. 1)10.1136/esmoopen‑2018‑00035729765774
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Al-MahmoodS. SapiezynskiJ. GarbuzenkoO.B. MinkoT. Metastatic and triple-negative breast cancer: Challenges and treatment options.Drug Deliv. Transl. Res.2018851483150710.1007/s13346‑018‑0551‑3 29978332
     [Google Scholar]
  15. WengL. ZhouJ. GuoS. XuN. MaR. The molecular subtyping and precision medicine in triple-negative breast cancer---based on Fudan TNBC classification.Cancer Cell Int.202424112010.1186/s12935‑024‑03261‑0 38555429
     [Google Scholar]
  16. JohnstoneT.C. SuntharalingamK. LippardS.J. The next generation of platinum drugs: Targeted Pt (II) agents, nanoparticle delivery, and Pt (IV) prodrugs timothy.Chem. Rev.201611653436348610.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00597 26865551
     [Google Scholar]
  17. RobsonM. ImS.A. SenkusE. XuB. DomchekS.M. MasudaN. DelalogeS. LiW. TungN. ArmstrongA. WuW. GoesslC. RunswickS. ConteP. Olaparib for metastatic breast cancer in patients with a germline BRCA mutation.N. Engl. J. Med.2017377652353310.1056/NEJMoa1706450 28578601
     [Google Scholar]
  18. LittonJ.K. RugoH.S. EttlJ. HurvitzS.A. GonçalvesA. LeeK.H. FehrenbacherL. YerushalmiR. MinaL.A. MartinM. RochéH. ImY.H. QuekR.G.W. MarkovaD. TudorI.C. HannahA.L. EiermannW. BlumJ.L. Talazoparib in patients with advanced breast cancer and a germline BRCA mutation.N. Engl. J. Med.2018379875376310.1056/NEJMoa1802905 30110579
     [Google Scholar]
  19. OisethS.J. AzizM.S. Cancer immunotherapy: A brief review of the history, possibilities, and challenges ahead.J. Cancer Metastasis Treat.201731025026110.20517/2394‑4722.2017.41
     [Google Scholar]
  20. KwaM.J. AdamsS. Checkpoint inhibitors in triple‐negative breast cancer (TNBC): Where to go from here.Cancer2018124102086210310.1002/cncr.31272 29424936
     [Google Scholar]
  21. SoareG.R. SoareC.A. Immunotherapy for breast cancer: First FDA approved regimen.Discoveries201971e9110.15190/d.2019.4 32309609
     [Google Scholar]
  22. SchmidP. AdamsS. RugoH.S. SchneeweissA. BarriosC.H. IwataH. DiérasV. HeggR. Im, S.A.; Shaw Wright, G.; Henschel, V.; Molinero, L.; Chui, S.Y.; Funke, R.; Husain, A.; Winer, E.P.; Loi, S.; Emens, L.A. Atezolizumab and nab-paclitaxel in advanced triple-negative breast cancer.N. Engl. J. Med.2018379222108212110.1056/NEJMoa1809615 30345906
     [Google Scholar]
  23. VonderheideR.H. DomchekS.M. ClarkA.S. Immunotherapy for breast cancer: What are we missing?Clin. Cancer Res.201723112640264610.1158/1078‑0432.CCR‑16‑2569 28572258
     [Google Scholar]
  24. NagayamaA. VidulaN. EllisenL. BardiaA. Novel antibody–drug conjugates for triple negative breast cancer.Ther. Adv. Med. Oncol.202012175883592091598010.1177/1758835920915980 32426047
     [Google Scholar]
  25. AshburnT.T. ThorK.B. Drug repositioning: Identifying and developing new uses for existing drugs.Nat. Rev. Drug Discov.20043867368310.1038/nrd1468 15286734
     [Google Scholar]
  26. NosengoN. Can you teach old drugs new tricks?Nature2016534760731431610.1038/534314a 27306171
     [Google Scholar]
  27. AkhoonB.A. TiwariH. NargotraA. In silico drug design methods for drug repurposing. In silico drug design.Elsevier2019478410.1016/B978‑0‑12‑816125‑8.00003‑1
     [Google Scholar]
  28. MacarronR. BanksM.N. BojanicD. BurnsD.J. CirovicD.A. GaryantesT. GreenD.V.S. HertzbergR.P. JanzenW.P. PaslayJ.W. SchopferU. SittampalamG.S. Impact of high-throughput screening in biomedical research.Nat. Rev. Drug Discov.201110318819510.1038/nrd3368 21358738
     [Google Scholar]
  29. HodosR.A. KiddB.A. ShameerK. ReadheadB.P. DudleyJ.T. In silico methods for drug repurposing and pharmacology.Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Syst. Biol. Med.20168318621010.1002/wsbm.1337 27080087
     [Google Scholar]
  30. KaramanB. SipplW. Computational drug repurposing: Current trends.Curr. Med. Chem.201926285389540910.2174/0929867325666180530100332 29848268
     [Google Scholar]
  31. AlaimoS. PulvirentiA. Network-based drug repositioning: Approaches, resources, and research directions.Methods in Molecular Biology; Humana Press Inc.: New York, NY, USA,2019190397113
     [Google Scholar]
  32. GnsH.S. SaraswathyG.R. MurahariM. KrishnamurthyM. An update on drug repurposing: Re-written saga of the drug’s fate.Biomed. Pharmacother.201911070071610.1016/j.biopha.2018.11.127 30553197
     [Google Scholar]
  33. SyrniotiA. PetousisS. NewmanL.A. Margioula-SiarkouC. PapamitsouT. DinasK. KoletsaT. Triple negative breast cancer: Molecular subtype-specific immune landscapes with therapeutic implications.Cancers20241611209410.3390/cancers16112094 38893213
     [Google Scholar]
  34. SohrabyF. BagheriM. AryapourH. Performing an in silico repurposing of existing drugs by combining virtual screening and molecular dynamics simulation.Computational Methods for Drug Repurposing.Springer20182343
     [Google Scholar]
  35. WangY. YellaJ. JeggaA.G. Transcriptomic data mining and repurposing for computational drug discovery.Methods Mol. Biol.20191903739510.1007/978‑1‑4939‑8955‑3_5 30547437
     [Google Scholar]
  36. LambJ. CrawfordE.D. PeckD. ModellJ.W. BlatI.C. WrobelM.J. LernerJ. BrunetJ.P. SubramanianA. RossK.N. ReichM. HieronymusH. WeiG. ArmstrongS.A. HaggartyS.J. ClemonsP.A. WeiR. CarrS.A. LanderE.S. GolubT.R. The connectivity map: Using gene-expression signatures to connect small molecules, genes, and disease.Science200631357951929193510.1126/science.1132939 17008526
     [Google Scholar]
  37. SubramanianA. NarayanR. CorselloS.M. PeckD.D. NatoliT.E. LuX. GouldJ. DavisJ.F. TubelliA.A. AsieduJ.K. LahrD.L. HirschmanJ.E. LiuZ. DonahueM. JulianB. KhanM. WaddenD. SmithI.C. LamD. LiberzonA. ToderC. BagulM. OrzechowskiM. EnacheO.M. PiccioniF. JohnsonS.A. LyonsN.J. BergerA.H. ShamjiA.F. BrooksA.N. VrcicA. FlynnC. RosainsJ. TakedaD.Y. HuR. DavisonD. LambJ. ArdlieK. HogstromL. GreensideP. GrayN.S. ClemonsP.A. SilverS. WuX. ZhaoW.N. Read-ButtonW. WuX. HaggartyS.J. RoncoL.V. BoehmJ.S. SchreiberS.L. DoenchJ.G. BittkerJ.A. RootD.E. WongB. GolubT.R. A next generation connectivity map: L1000 platform and the first 1,000,000 profiles.Cell2017171614371452.e1710.1016/j.cell.2017.10.049 29195078
     [Google Scholar]
  38. HigurashiM. IshidaT. KinoshitaK. Identification of transient hub proteins and the possible structural basis for their multiple interactions.Protein Sci.2008171727810.1110/ps.073196308 18156468
     [Google Scholar]
  39. OzdemirE.S. HalakouF. NussinovR. GursoyA. KeskinO. Methods for discovering and targeting druggable protein-protein interfaces and their application to repurposing.Methods Mol. Biol.2019190312110.1007/978‑1‑4939‑8955‑3_1 30547433
     [Google Scholar]
  40. SuE.W. SangerT.M. Systematic drug repositioning through mining adverse event data in ClinicalTrials.gov.PeerJ20175e315410.7717/peerj.3154 28348935
     [Google Scholar]
  41. PerouC.M. SørlieT. EisenM.B. van de RijnM. JeffreyS.S. ReesC.A. PollackJ.R. RossD.T. JohnsenH. AkslenL.A. FlugeØ. PergamenschikovA. WilliamsC. ZhuS.X. LønningP.E. Børresen-DaleA.L. BrownP.O. BotsteinD. Molecular portraits of human breast tumours.Nature2000406679774775210.1038/35021093 10963602
     [Google Scholar]
  42. SørlieT. PerouC.M. TibshiraniR. AasT. GeislerS. JohnsenH. HastieT. EisenM.B. van de RijnM. JeffreyS.S. ThorsenT. QuistH. MateseJ.C. BrownP.O. BotsteinD. LønningP.E. Børresen-DaleA.L. Gene expression patterns of breast carcinomas distinguish tumor subclasses with clinical implications.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA20019819108691087410.1073/pnas.191367098 11553815
     [Google Scholar]
  43. SørlieT. TibshiraniR. ParkerJ. HastieT. MarronJ.S. NobelA. DengS. JohnsenH. PesichR. GeislerS. DemeterJ. PerouC.M. LønningP.E. BrownP.O. Børresen-DaleA.L. BotsteinD. Repeated observation of breast tumor subtypes in independent gene expression data sets.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA2003100148418842310.1073/pnas.0932692100 12829800
     [Google Scholar]
  44. HuZ. FanC. OhD.S. MarronJ.S. HeX. QaqishB.F. LivasyC. CareyL.A. ReynoldsE. DresslerL. NobelA. ParkerJ. EwendM.G. SawyerL.R. WuJ. LiuY. NandaR. TretiakovaM. OrricoA.R. DreherD. PalazzoJ.P. PerreardL. NelsonE. MoneM. HansenH. MullinsM. QuackenbushJ.F. EllisM.J. OlopadeO.I. BernardP.S. PerouC.M. The molecular portraits of breast tumors are conserved across microarray platforms.BMC Genomics2006719610.1186/1471‑2164‑7‑96 16643655
     [Google Scholar]
  45. LeeM. YooT.K. ChaeB.J. LeeA. ChaY.J. LeeJ. AhnS.G. KangJ. Luminal androgen receptor subtype and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes groups based on triple-negative breast cancer molecular subclassification.Sci. Rep.20241411127810.1038/s41598‑024‑61640‑z 38760384
     [Google Scholar]
  46. ParkerJ.S. MullinsM. CheangM.C.U. LeungS. VoducD. VickeryT. DaviesS. FauronC. HeX. HuZ. QuackenbushJ.F. StijlemanI.J. PalazzoJ. MarronJ.S. NobelA.B. MardisE. NielsenT.O. EllisM.J. PerouC.M. BernardP.S. Supervised risk predictor of breast cancer based on intrinsic subtypes.J. Clin. Oncol.20092781160116710.1200/JCO.2008.18.1370 19204204
     [Google Scholar]
  47. KreikeB. van KouwenhoveM. HorlingsH. WeigeltB. PeterseH. BartelinkH. van de VijverM.J. Gene expression profiling and histopathological characterization of triple-negative/basal-like breast carcinomas.Breast Cancer Res.200795R6510.1186/bcr1771 17910759
     [Google Scholar]
  48. PratA. AdamoB. CheangM.C.U. AndersC.K. CareyL.A. PerouC.M. Molecular characterization of basal-like and non-basal-like triple-negative breast cancer.Oncologist201318212313310.1634/theoncologist.2012‑0397 23404817
     [Google Scholar]
  49. LehmannB.D. PietenpolJ.A. Identification and use of biomarkers in treatment strategies for triple‐negative breast cancer subtypes.J. Pathol.2014232214215010.1002/path.4280 24114677
     [Google Scholar]
  50. LehmannB.D. BauerJ.A. ChenX. SandersM.E. ChakravarthyA.B. ShyrY. PietenpolJ.A. Identification of human triple-negative breast cancer subtypes and preclinical models for selection of targeted therapies.J. Clin. Invest.201112172750276710.1172/JCI45014 21633166
     [Google Scholar]
  51. ChenX. LiJ. GrayW.H. LehmannB.D. BauerJ.A. ShyrY. PietenpolJ.A. TNBCtype: A subtyping tool for triple-negative breast cancer.Cancer Inform.20121114715610.4137/CIN.S9983 22872785
     [Google Scholar]
  52. QiY. ZhangW. JiangR. XuO. KongX. ZhangL. FangY. WangJ. WangJ. Efficacy and safety of PD-1 and PD-L1 inhibitors combined with chemotherapy in randomized clinical trials among triple-negative breast cancer.Front. Pharmacol.20221396032310.3389/fphar.2022.960323 36188589
     [Google Scholar]
  53. LehmannB.D. JovanovićB. ChenX. EstradaM.V. JohnsonK.N. ShyrY. MosesH.L. SandersM.E. PietenpolJ.A. Refinement of triple-negative breast cancer molecular subtypes: Implications for neoadjuvant chemotherapy selection.PLoS One2016116e015736810.1371/journal.pone.0157368 27310713
     [Google Scholar]
  54. BursteinM.D. TsimelzonA. PoageG.M. CovingtonK.R. ContrerasA. FuquaS.A.W. SavageM.I. OsborneC.K. HilsenbeckS.G. ChangJ.C. MillsG.B. LauC.C. BrownP.H. Comprehensive genomic analysis identifies novel subtypes and targets of triple-negative breast cancer.Clin. Cancer Res.20152171688169810.1158/1078‑0432.CCR‑14‑0432 25208879
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Le DuF. EckhardtB.L. LimB. LittonJ.K. MoulderS. Meric-BernstamF. Gonzalez-AnguloA.M. UenoN.T. Is the future of personalized therapy in triple-negative breast cancer based on molecular subtype?Oncotarget2015615128901290810.18632/oncotarget.3849 25973541
     [Google Scholar]
  56. RingB.Z. HoutD.R. MorrisS.W. LawrenceK. SchweitzerB.L. BaileyD.B. Generation of an algorithm based on minimal gene sets to clinically subtype triple negative breast cancer patients.BMC Cancer20161618
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Espinosa FernandezJ.R. EckhardtB.L. LeeJ. LimB. PearsonT. SeitzR.S. HoutD.R. SchweitzerB.L. NielsenT.J. LawrenceO.R. WangY. RaoA. UenoN.T. Identification of triple-negative breast cancer cell lines classified under the same molecular subtype using different molecular characterization techniques: Implications for translational research.PLoS One2020154e023195310.1371/journal.pone.0231953 32353087
     [Google Scholar]
  58. ThompsonK.J. Leon-FerreR.A. SinnwellJ.P. ZahriehD.M. SumanV.J. MetzgerF.O. AsadS. StoverD.G. CareyL. SikovW.M. IngleJ.N. LiuM.C. CarterJ.M. KleeE.W. WeinshilboumR.M. BougheyJ.C. WangL. CouchF.J. GoetzM.P. KalariK.R. Luminal androgen receptor breast cancer subtype and investigation of the microenvironment and neoadjuvant chemotherapy response.NAR Cancer202242zcac01810.1093/narcan/zcac018 35734391
     [Google Scholar]
  59. RampurwalaM. WisinskiK.B. O’ReganR. Role of the androgen receptor in triple-negative breast cancer.Clin. Adv. Hematol. Oncol.2016143186193 27058032
     [Google Scholar]
  60. CaiazzaF. MurrayA. MaddenS.F. SynnottN.C. RyanE.J. O’DonovanN. CrownJ. DuffyM.J. Preclinical evaluation of the AR inhibitor enzalutamide in triple-negative breast cancer cells.Endocr. Relat. Cancer201623432333410.1530/ERC‑16‑0068 26932782
     [Google Scholar]
  61. BartonV.N. D’AmatoN.C. GordonM.A. LindH.T. SpoelstraN.S. BabbsB.L. HeinzR.E. EliasA. JedlickaP. JacobsenB.M. RicherJ.K. Multiple molecular subtypes of triple-negative breast cancer critically rely on androgen receptor and respond to enzalutamide in vivo.Mol. Cancer Ther.201514376977810.1158/1535‑7163.MCT‑14‑0926 25713333
     [Google Scholar]
  62. BartonV.N. D’AmatoN.C. GordonM.A. ChristensonJ.L. EliasA. RicherJ.K. Androgen receptor biology in triple negative breast cancer: A case for classification as AR+ or quadruple negative disease.Horm. Cancer201565-620621310.1007/s12672‑015‑0232‑3 26201402
     [Google Scholar]
  63. ChristensonJ.L. TrepelJ.B. AliH.Y. LeeS. EisnerJ.R. Baskin-BeyE.S. EliasA.D. RicherJ.K. Harnessing a different dependency: How to identify and target androgen receptor-positive versus quadruple-negative breast cancer.Horm. Cancer201892829410.1007/s12672‑017‑0314‑5 29340907
     [Google Scholar]
  64. NarayananR. MohlerM.L. BohlC.E. MillerD.D. DaltonJ.T. Selective androgen receptor modulators in preclinical and clinical development.Nucl. Recept. Signal.20086e01010.1621/nrs.06010 19079612
     [Google Scholar]
  65. MaqboolM. BekeleF. FekaduG. Treatment strategies against triple-negative breast cancer: An updated review.Breast Cancer202214152410.2147/BCTT.S348060 35046722
     [Google Scholar]
  66. GucalpA. TrainaT.A. Targeting the androgen receptor in triple-negative breast cancer.Curr. Probl. Cancer2016402-414115010.1016/j.currproblcancer.2016.09.004 27816190
     [Google Scholar]
  67. ScherH.I. FizaziK. SaadF. TaplinM.E. SternbergC.N. MillerK. de WitR. MuldersP. ChiK.N. ShoreN.D. ArmstrongA.J. FlaigT.W. FléchonA. MainwaringP. FlemingM. HainsworthJ.D. HirmandM. SelbyB. SeelyL. de BonoJ.S. Increased survival with enzalutamide in prostate cancer after chemotherapy.N. Engl. J. Med.2012367131187119710.1056/NEJMoa1207506 22894553
     [Google Scholar]
  68. QuinteroJ.C. DíazN.F. Rodríguez-DorantesM. Camacho-ArroyoI. Cancer stem cells and androgen receptor signaling: Partners in disease progression.Int. J. Mol. Sci.202324201508510.3390/ijms242015085 37894767
     [Google Scholar]
  69. WuS. YuK. LianZ. DengS. Molecular regulation of androgen receptors in major female reproductive system cancers.Int. J. Mol. Sci.20222314755610.3390/ijms23147556 35886904
     [Google Scholar]
  70. LehmanC.D. IsaacsC. SchnallM.D. PisanoE.D. AscherS.M. WeatherallP.T. BluemkeD.A. BowenD.J. MarcomP.K. ArmstrongD.K. DomchekS.M. TomlinsonG. SkatesS.J. GatsonisC. Cancer yield of mammography, MR, and US in high-risk women: Prospective multi-institution breast cancer screening study.Radiology2007244238138810.1148/radiol.2442060461 17641362
     [Google Scholar]
  71. ChenJ. KimJ. DaltonJ.T. Discovery and therapeutic promise of selective androgen receptor modulators.Mol. Interv.20055317318810.1124/mi.5.3.7 15994457
     [Google Scholar]
  72. MasielloD. ChengS. BubleyG.J. LuM.L. BalkS.P. Bicalutamide functions as an androgen receptor antagonist by assembly of a transcriptionally inactive receptor.J. Biol. Chem.200227729263212632610.1074/jbc.M203310200 12015321
     [Google Scholar]
  73. DuH. FairbridgeC. YangH. RingZ. The chemistry of selective ring-opening catalysts.Appl. Catal. A Gen.2005294112110.1016/j.apcata.2005.06.033
     [Google Scholar]
  74. HuangR. HanJ. LiangX. SunS. JiangY. XiaB. NiuM. LiD. ZhangJ. WangS. WeiW. LiuQ. ZhengW. ZhangG. SongY. PangaD. Androgen receptor expression and bicalutamide antagonize androgen receptor inhibit $β$-catenin transcription complex in estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer.Cell. Physiol. Biochem.20174362212222510.1159/000484300 29069648
     [Google Scholar]
  75. GucalpA. TolaneyS. IsakoffS.J. IngleJ.N. LiuM.C. CareyL.A. BlackwellK. RugoH. NabellL. ForeroA. StearnsV. DoaneA.S. DansoM. MoynahanM.E. MomenL.F. GonzalezJ.M. AkhtarA. GiriD.D. PatilS. FeiginK.N. HudisC.A. TrainaT.A. Phase II trial of bicalutamide in patients with androgen receptor-positive, estrogen receptor-negative metastatic Breast Cancer.Clin. Cancer Res.201319195505551210.1158/1078‑0432.CCR‑12‑3327 23965901
     [Google Scholar]
  76. CochraneD.R. BernalesS. JacobsenB.M. CittellyD.M. HoweE.N. D’AmatoN.C. SpoelstraN.S. EdgertonS.M. JeanA. GuerreroJ. GómezF. MedicherlaS. AlfaroI.E. McCullaghE. JedlickaP. TorkkoK.C. ThorA.D. EliasA.D. ProtterA.A. RicherJ.K. Role of the androgen receptor in breast cancer and preclinical analysis of enzalutamide.Breast Cancer Res.2014161R710.1186/bcr3599 24451109
     [Google Scholar]
  77. YinL. HuQ. CYP17 inhibitors—abiraterone, C17,20-lyase inhibitors and multi-targeting agents.Nat. Rev. Urol.2014111324210.1038/nrurol.2013.274 24276076
     [Google Scholar]
  78. TrainaT.A. MillerK. YardleyD.A. O’ShaughnessyJ. CortesJ. AwadaA. KellyC.M. TrudeauM.E. SchmidP. GianniL. García-EstevezL. NandaR. AdemuyiwaF.O. ChanS. SteinbergJ.L. BlaneyM.E. TudorI.C. UppalH. PetersonA.C. HudisC.A. Results from a phase 2 study of enzalutamide (ENZA), an androgen receptor (AR) inhibitor, in advanced AR+ triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC).J. Clin. Oncol.20153315_suppl100310.1200/jco.2015.33.15_suppl.1003
     [Google Scholar]
  79. DrellT.L. JosephJ. LangK. NiggemannB. ZaenkerK.S. EntschladenF. Effects of neurotransmitters on the chemokinesis and chemotaxis of MDA-MB-468 human breast carcinoma cells.Breast Cancer Res. Treat.2003801637010.1023/A:1024491219366 12889599
     [Google Scholar]
  80. GrelletyT. CallensC. RichardE. BriauxA. VélascoV. PulidoM. GonçalvesA. GestraudP. MacGroganG. BonnefoiH. CardinaudB. Enhancing abiraterone acetate efficacy in androgen receptor--positive triple-negative breast cancer: Chk1 as a potential target.Clin. Cancer Res.201925285686710.1158/1078‑0432.CCR‑18‑1469 30352905
     [Google Scholar]
  81. BonnefoiH. GrelletyT. TredanO. SaghatchianM. DalencF. MailliezA. L’HaridonT. CottuP. Abadie-LacourtoisieS. YouB. MousseauM. DaubaJ. Del PianoF. DesmoulinsI. CoussyF. MadrangesN. GrenierJ. BidardF.C. ProudhonC. MacGroganG. OrsiniC. PulidoM. GonçalvesA. A phase II trial of abiraterone acetate plus prednisone in patients with triple-negative androgen receptor positive locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer (UCBG 12-1).Ann. Oncol.201627581281810.1093/annonc/mdw067 27052658
     [Google Scholar]
  82. AversanoS. CaiazzaC. CaiazzoM. Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived and directly reprogrammed neurons to study neurodegenerative diseases: The impact of aging signatures.Front. Aging Neurosci.202214106948210.3389/fnagi.2022.1069482 36620769
     [Google Scholar]
  83. RovielloG. PacificoC. ChiriacòG. GeneraliD. Is still there a place for orteronel in management of prostate cancer? Data from a literature based meta-analysis of randomized trials.Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol.2017113182110.1016/j.critrevonc.2017.02.023 28427507
     [Google Scholar]
  84. ReeseJM BabbsBL ChristensonJL SpoelstraNS EliasA EisnerJR Abstract P5-05-05: Targeting the androgen receptor with seviteronel, a CYP17 lyase and AR inhibitor, in triple negative breast cancer. Cancer Res.,201979(4_Supplement), P5-05-0510.1158/1538‑7445.SABCS18‑P5‑05‑05
     [Google Scholar]
  85. MichmerhuizenA.R. ChandlerB. OlsenE. Wilder-RomansK. MoubadderL. LiuM. PeschA.M. ZhangA. RitterC. WardS.T. SantolaA. NyatiS. RaeJ.M. HayesD. FengF.Y. SprattD. WahlD. EisnerJ. PierceL.J. SpeersC. Seviteronel, a novel CYP17 lyase inhibitor and androgen receptor antagonist, radiosensitizes AR-positive triple negative breast cancer cells.Front. Endocrinol.2020113510.3389/fendo.2020.00035 32117061
     [Google Scholar]
  86. WangP. GogginsW.B. ChanE.Y.Y. A time-series study of the association of rainfall, relative humidity and ambient temperature with hospitalizations for rotavirus and norovirus infection among children in Hong Kong.Sci. Total Environ.201864341442210.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.189 29940452
     [Google Scholar]
  87. GucalpA. DansoM.A. EliasA.D. BardiaA. AliH.Y. PotterD. Phase (Ph) 2 stage 1 clinical activity of seviteronel, a selective CYP17-lyase and androgen receptor (AR) inhibitor, in women with advanced AR+ triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) or estrogen receptor (ER)+ BC: CLARITY-01.J. Clin. Oncol.201735110210.1200/JCO.2017.35.15_suppl.1102
     [Google Scholar]
  88. GaoW. DaltonJ.T. Expanding the therapeutic use of androgens via selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs).Drug Discov. Today2007125-624124810.1016/j.drudis.2007.01.003 17331889
     [Google Scholar]
  89. NarayananR. AhnS. CheneyM.D. YepuruM. MillerD.D. SteinerM.S. DaltonJ.T. Selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs) negatively regulate triple-negative breast cancer growth and epithelial:mesenchymal stem cell signaling.PLoS One201497e10320210.1371/journal.pone.0103202 25072326
     [Google Scholar]
  90. GuoY.R. CaoQ.D. HongZ.S. TanY.Y. ChenS.D. JinH.J. TanK-S. WangD-Y. YanY. The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak – an update on the status.Mil. Med. Res.2020711110.1186/s40779‑020‑00240‑0
     [Google Scholar]
  91. ObeidE.I. ConzenS.D. The role of adrenergic signaling in breast cancer biology.Cancer Biomark.201313316116910.3233/CBM‑130347 23912488
     [Google Scholar]
  92. PhanP.H. WrightM. UcbasaranD. TanW.L. Corporate entrepreneurship: Current research and future directions.J. Bus. Venturing200924319720510.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.01.007
     [Google Scholar]
  93. ParkinsonF.E. DamarajuV.L. GrahamK. YaoS.Y. BaldwinS.A. CassC.E. YoungJ.D. Molecular biology of nucleoside transporters and their distributions and functions in the brain.Curr. Top. Med. Chem.201111894897210.2174/156802611795347582 21401500
     [Google Scholar]
  94. PoweD.G. VossM.J. ZänkerK.S. HabashyH.O. GreenA.R. EllisI.O. EntschladenF. Beta-blocker drug therapy reduces secondary cancer formation in breast cancer and improves cancer specific survival.Oncotarget20101762863810.18632/oncotarget.197 21317458
     [Google Scholar]
  95. KafetzopoulouL.E. BoocockD.J. DhondalayG.K.R. PoweD.G. BallG.R. Biomarker identification in breast cancer: Beta-adrenergic receptor signaling and pathways to therapeutic response.Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J.201367e20130300310.5936/csbj.201303003 24688711
     [Google Scholar]
  96. LiD. ChenX. ZhangZ. HuangK. Learning deep context-aware features over body and latent parts for person re-identification.Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognitionHonolulu, HI, USA 21-26 July20177398740710.1109/CVPR.2017.782
     [Google Scholar]
  97. Pérez PiñeroC. BruzzoneA. SarappaM.G. CastilloL.F. LüthyI.A. Involvement of α2‐ and β2‐adrenoceptors on breast cancer cell proliferation and tumour growth regulation.Br. J. Pharmacol.2012166272173610.1111/j.1476‑5381.2011.01791.x 22122228
     [Google Scholar]
  98. VázquezS.M. MladovanA.G. PérezC. BruzzoneA. BaldiA. LüthyI.A. Human breast cell lines exhibit functional α2-adrenoceptors.Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol.2006581506110.1007/s00280‑005‑0130‑4 16292538
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Arroyo-CrespoJ.J. ArmiñánA. CharbonnierD. DeladriereC. Palomino-SchätzleinM. Lamas-DomingoR. FortezaJ. Pineda-LucenaA. VicentM.J. Characterization of triple‐negative breast cancer preclinical models provides functional evidence of metastatic progression.Int. J. Cancer201914582267228110.1002/ijc.32270 30860605
     [Google Scholar]
  100. PontM. MarquésM. SorollaA. Latest therapeutical approaches for triple-negative breast cancer: From preclinical to clinical research.Int. J. Mol. Sci.202425241351810.3390/ijms252413518 39769279
     [Google Scholar]
  101. QinJ.J. YanL. ZhangJ. ZhangW.D. STAT3 as a potential therapeutic target in triple negative breast cancer: A systematic review.J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res.201938119510.1186/s13046‑019‑1206‑z 31088482
     [Google Scholar]
  102. KheraL. LevS. Accelerating AXL targeting for TNBC therapy.Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol.202113910605710.1016/j.biocel.2021.106057
     [Google Scholar]
  103. HowardF.M. PearsonA.T. NandaR. Clinical trials of immunotherapy in triple-negative breast cancer.Breast Cancer Res. Treat.2022195111510.1007/s10549‑022‑06665‑6 35834065
     [Google Scholar]
  104. WuL. SunS. QuF. SunM. LiuX. SunQ. ChengL. ZhengY. SuG. CXCL9 influences the tumor immune microenvironment by stimulating JAK/STAT pathway in triple-negative breast cancer.Cancer Immunol. Immunother.20237261479149210.1007/s00262‑022‑03343‑w 36472587
     [Google Scholar]
  105. JinZ. WangW. JiangN. ZhangL. LiY. XuX. CaiS. WeiL. LiuX. ChenG. ZhouY. LiuC. LiZ. JinF. ChenB. Clinical implications of iNOS levels in triple-negative breast cancer responding to neoadjuvant chemotherapy.PLoS One2015107e013028610.1371/journal.pone.0130286 26196284
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/ctmc/10.2174/0115680266360882250702093727
Loading
Exploring Cutting-Edge Strategies for the Management of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Through Drug Repurposing
Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 26, 221 (2026); https://doi.org/10.2174/0115680266360882250702093727
/content/journals/ctmc/10.2174/0115680266360882250702093727
/content/journals/ctmc/10.2174/0115680266360882250702093727
Loading

Data & Media loading...


  • Article Type:     Review Article
Keyword(s): Clinical trials; Drug repositioning; Genomics; Metastases; Recurrence; TNBC

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test