Current Drug Metabolism - Volume 13, Issue 10, 2012

Fatty acids are known to serve as energetic substrates, key components of membrane lipids, and as substrates for the synthesis of signaling molecules and complex lipids. They are also known to be ligands either of membrane receptors involved in cell signaling or of nuclear receptors mediating gene regulation. Accumulation of fatty acids due to altered metabolism and/or unbalanced diet has been described to be toxic for several tissues, especially liver. In numerous cell types, cell death, cytokine secretion and activation of inflammatory processes appear to be a consequence of fatty acid accumulation. This review presents the different classes of fatty acids known to trigger toxic effects and inflammation, the cellular and subcellular targets of these fatty acids in the context of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and the mechanisms by which these effects are mediated.

Lysosomes are cytoplasmic organelles delimited by a single membrane and filled with a variety of hydrolytic enzymes active at acidic pH and collectively capable to degrade the vast majority of macromolecules entering lysosomes via endocytosis, phagocytosis or autophagy. In this review, we describe the lipid composition and the dynamic properties of lysosomal membrane, the main delivery pathways of lipids to lysosomes and their catabolism inside lysosomes. Then, we present the consequences of a lipid accumulation as seen in various lysosomal storage diseases on lysosomal functions. Finally, we discuss about the possible involvement of lysosomes in lipotoxicity.

This review is aimed at illustrating that mitochondrial dysfunction and altered lipid homeostasis may concur in a variety of pathogenesis states, being either contributive or consecutive to primary disease events. Underlying mechanisms for this concurrence are far from being the exhaustive elements taking place in disease development. They may however complicate, contribute or cause the disease. In the first part of the review, physiological roles of mitochondria in coordinating lipid metabolism and in controlling reactive oxygen species (ROS), ATP and calcium levels are briefly presented. In a second part, clues for how mitochondria-driven alterations in lipid metabolism may induce toxicity are discussed. In the third part, it is illustrated how mitochondrial dysfunction and lipid homeostasis disruption may be associated (i) to complicate type 1 diabetes (pancreatic β-cell mitochondrial dysfunction in ATP yield induces reduced insulin secretion and hence disruption of glucose and lipid metabolism), (ii) to contribute to type 2 diabetes and other insulin resistant states (mitochondrial impairment may induce adipocyte dysfunction with subsequent increase in circulating free fatty acids and their abnormal deposit in non adipose tissues (pancreatic β-cells, skeletal muscle and liver) which results in lipotoxicity and mitochondrial dysfunction), (iii) to offer new clues in our understanding of how the brain controls feeding supply and energy expenditure, (iv) to promote cancer development notably via fatty acid oxidation/synthesis imbalance (in favor of synthesis) further strengthened in some cancers by a lipogenetic benefit induced by a HER2/fatty acid synthase cross-talk, and (v) to favor cardiovascular disorders by impacting heart function and arterial wall integrity.

The group of peroxisomal disorders represents a growing number of genetically determined diseases in humans in which there is an impairment in one or more peroxisomal functions. The peroxisomal disorders are usually subdivided in two major subgroups including (1) the peroxisome biogenesis disorders (PBDs) and (2) the single peroxisomal enzyme deficiencies. Liver pathology is a frequent finding in patients affected by a peroxisomal disorder. This is not only true for patients affected by a PBD, but also for patients with a single enzyme defect in one of the metabolic pathways in which peroxisomes are involved. By comparing the different peroxisomal disorders, we provide evidence suggesting that the main hepatotoxic metabolites responsible for the liver pathology found in patients, are the bile acid synthesis intermediates di- and trihydroxycholestanoic acid (DHCA and THCA). Studies in different experimental systems have shown that DHCA and THCA, especially in the unconjugated form, interfere with different physiological processes including mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. The implications of these findings will be discussed with special emphasis on patients with di- and trihydroxycholestanoic acidaemia.

Three subhepatocellular compartments concur for fatty acids degradation including ω-oxidation in endoplasmic reticulum and β-oxidation in both mitochondria and peroxisomes. Deficits affecting the peroxisomal physiology may be associated with multiple metabolic disturbances. Nowadays, a growing body of evidence underlines the key role of peroxisomal β-oxidation in the sensing of lipid metabolism through the production/degradation of some essential metabolites. Lessons from several mice models strengthen the link between fatty acid β-oxidation in peroxisomes and the nuclear hormone receptor Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor (PPAR)-α with an additional level of coregualtor complexity, which couples regulation of body energetic balance and hepatic caloric flux to functional peroxisome status. Here, we review key determinants of disrupted peroxisomal β-oxidation pathway, which in liver promotes hepatic steatosis and hepatocarcinogenesis.

Liver regulates certain key aspects of lipid metabolism including de novo lipogenesis, fatty acid oxidation, and lipoprotein uptake and secretion. Disturbances in these hepatic functions can contribute to the development of fatty liver disease. An understanding of the regulatory mechanisms influencing hepatic lipid homeostasis and systemic energy balance is therefore of paramount importance in gaining insights that might be useful in the management of fatty liver disease. In this regard, emerging evidence indicates that certain members of the nuclear receptor superfamily and some key transcription coactivators function as intracellular sensors to orchestrate hepatic lipid metabolism. Dysregulation of nuclear receptor-mediated transcriptional signaling and perturbations in the levels of their cognate endogenous ligands play a prominent role in the development of fatty liver disease. The potential of nuclear receptors, transcription coactivators as well as enzymes that participate in the synthesis and degradation of endogenous nuclear receptor ligands, as effective therapeutic targets for fatty liver disease needs evaluation.

In mammals, the liver is the major organ of fatty acid catabolism. This pathway is involved in both mitochondria and peroxisome. While mitochondria breaks down fatty acids with short, medium and long carbon chains, peroxisomes are involved in the catabolism of very long and branched chain fatty acids, which are degraded by three enzymes: acyl-CoA oxidase, multifunctional enzyme and thiolase enzyme. The active pathway results mainly from a tight transcriptional control of these gene-encoding enzymes. Two major nuclear receptors that are highly expressed in this organ are involved in this control, e.g. PPARα (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, α isoform) and HNF4α (hepatic nuclear factor 4, α isotype). Both are key regulators of liver lipid metabolism. While numerous papers have reported on the role of PPARα in liver lipid homeostasis, less is known on the implication of HNF4α in this metabolism. Moreover, very few studies have taken an interest in the important question of the implication of these two receptors and most particularly their crosstalk. This review therefore presents the current knowledge on the PPARα/HNF4α interplay in diversified DNA responsive elements and its relevance in the regulation fatty acid catabolism. It presents a review of the properties of the nuclear receptors PPARα and HNF4α, then the genes regulated by HNF4α and PPARα, particularly the peroxisomal enzyme target genes. To conclude, the consequences of the regulation of these genes in the liver by PPARα and HNF4α will be analyzed. The current data indicate the requirement of PPARα and HNF4α for regulation in the liver of peroxisomal and mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation, cholesterol and bile acid metabolism, lipoprotein metabolism and consequently the prevention of liver steatosis. However, several questions remain unsolved. To show the interplay of PPARα and HNF4α in the regulation of liver fatty acid metabolism, different strategies are proposed.

Stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD-1) is a delta-9 fatty acid desaturase that catalyzes the synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids. Indeed, SCD-1 is the critical control point regulating hepatic lipogenesis and lipid oxidation. Due to its central role in lipid metabolism in the liver, recent studies have focused on the involvement of SCD-1 in the development of fatty liver during obesity, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, excessive alcohol consumption, and in subjects with high triglyceride blood concentrations. The accumulation of fat in liver cells can be a sign that harmful conditions are developing, possibly associated with or leading to inflammation of the liver. This review evaluates the recent advances in our understanding of the regulation of SCD-1 expression and its role in the development of nonalcoholic and alcoholic hepatosteatosis. Animal models presenting a liver-specific loss or inhibition of SCD-1, as well as dietary interventions, have highlighted the important role of the enzyme in the accumulation of fat (fatty infiltration) in hepatocytes during both alcoholic and nonalcoholic liver diseases. The data summarized in this article support the notion that SCD-1 plays a direct role in the development of fatty liver diseases, and is not simply a marker of an unfavorable diet or hepatic disorder. Accordingly, SCD-1 represents a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of hepatic steatosis.

High drug attrition rates due to toxicity, the controversy of experimental animal usage, and the EU REACH regulation demanding toxicity profiles of a high number of chemicals demonstrate the need for new, in vitro toxicity models with high predictivity and throughput. Metabolism by cytochrome P450s (P450s) is one of the main causes of drug toxicity. As some of these enzymes are highly polymorphic leading to large differences is metabolic capacity, isotype-specific test systems are needed. In this review, we will discuss the use of yeast expressing (mammalian) P450s as a powerful, additional model system in drug safety. We will discuss the various cellular model systems for bioactivation-related toxicity and subsequently describe the properties of yeast as a model system, including the endogenous bioactivation enzymes present, the heterologous expression of (mammalian) P450s and the application of yeasts expressing heterologous P450s and/or other biotransformation enzymes in toxicity studies. All major human drug-metabolizing P450s have been successfully expressed in yeast and various mutagenicity tests have been performed with these humanized yeast strains. The few examples of non-mutagenic toxicity studies with these strains and of the combination of P450s with phase II or other human enzymes show the potential of yeast as a model system in metabolism-related toxicity studies. The wide variety of genome-wide screens available in yeast, combined with its well-annotated genome, also facilitate follow-up studies on the genes involved in toxicity. Unless indicated otherwise “yeast” will refer to baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Noscapine, a tubulin binding anticancer agent undergoing Phase I/II clinical trials, inhibits tumor growth in nude mice bearing human xenografts of breast, lung, ovarian, brain, and prostrate origin. The analogues of noscapine like 9-bromonoscapine (EM011) are 5 to 10-fold more active than parent compound, noscapine. Noscapinoids inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells that are resistant to paclitaxel and epothilone. Noscapine also potentiated the anticancer activity of doxorubicin in a synergistic manner against triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). However, physicochemical and pharmacokinetic (ED50˜300-600 mg/kg bodyweight) limitations of noscapine present hurdle in development of commercial anticancer formulations. Therefore, objectives of the present review are to summarize the chemotherapeutic potential of noscapine and implications of nanoscale based drug delivery systems in enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of noscapine in cancer cells. We have constructed noscapine-enveloped gelatin nanoparticles, NPs and poly (ethylene glycol) grafted gelatin NPs as well as inclusion complex of noscapine in β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and evaluated their physicochemical characteristics. The Fe3O4 NPs were also used to incorporate noscapine in its polymeric nanomatrix system where molecular weight of the polymer governed the encapsulation efficiency of drug. The enhanced noscapine delivery using μPAR-targeted optical-MR imaging trackable NPs offer a great potential for image directed targeted delivery of noscapine. Human Serum Albumin NPs (150-300 nm) as efficient noscapine drug delivery systems have also been developed for potential use in breast cancer.