Skip to content
2000
image of The Cause-and-Consequence Relationships between Domestic Abuse and Alzheimer’s Disease: Identification of Five Subtypes

Abstract

Domestic abuse (DA) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and related dementias) are two of humankind’s most significant societal healthcare issues. DA is widespread, with one in three women and one in four men experiencing physical, psychological, emotional, sexual, and financial abuse in their lifetime. AD is the most common form of dementia and is expected to affect more than 152 million people worldwide by 2050. Given the incidence and prevalence of these two problems, any causal relationship between them carries profound societal consequences. Herein, we describe five types of overlapping relationships between DA and AD: 1. intimate partner violence (IPV) as a risk factor for AD; 2. AD as a risk factor for worsening ongoing DA; 3. abuse of caregivers by people with AD; 4. abuse of people with AD by caregivers; and 5. reactivation of previous DA behavior in a person with AD. Chronologically, these five types cover the spectrum from occurring decades before the onset of AD symptoms to emerging only after AD symptoms have manifested. Mechanistically, these five subtypes reflect the paradoxical fact that DA and AD may be causes or consequences of each other. Phenomenologically, they encompass the full spectrum of DA, including physical, psychological, emotional, sexual, and financial abuse. Given the challenges in recognizing, managing, and treating both DA and AD, society’s need to recognize the DA/AD Problem and to identify and prevent the five subtypes of DA and AD overlap is an emerging healthcare priority.

© 2026 Bentham Science Publishers
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/car/10.2174/0115672050414496251124094000
2026-01-05
2026-01-12

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/car/10.2174/0115672050414496251124094000
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Nichols E. Steinmetz J.D. Vollset S.E. Estimation of the global prevalence of dementia in 2019 and forecasted prevalence in 2050: An analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Public Health 2022 7 2 e105 e125 10.1016/S2468‑2667(21)00249‑8 34998485
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Griffin E. Arensman E. Intimate partner violence: Breaking the silence. Lancet Psychiatry 2022 9 7 530 531 10.1016/S2215‑0366(22)00195‑X 35688171
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Dementia Types | Symptoms, Diagnosis, Causes, Treatments. 2024 Available from: https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/what-is-dementia/types-of-dementia
  4. Page S. Fletcher T. Auguste D. One hundred years on: ‘The person’not ’the case.’. Dementia 2006 5 571 583 10.1177/1471301206069939
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Maurer K. Volk S. Gerbaldo H. Auguste D and Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet 1997 349 9064 1546 1549 10.1016/S0140‑6736(96)10203‑8 9167474
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Hendriks S. Peetoom K. Bakker C. Global prevalence of young-onset dementia. JAMA Neurol. 2021 78 9 1080 1090 10.1001/jamaneurol.2021.2161 34279544
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Hebert L.E. Beckett L.A. Scherr P.A. Evans D.A. Annual incidence of Alzheimer disease in the United States projected to the years 2000 through 2050. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 2001 15 4 169 173 10.1097/00002093‑200110000‑00002 11723367
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Qiu C. Kivipelto M. von Strauss E. Epidemiology of Alzheimer’s disease: Occurrence, determinants, and strategies toward intervention. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 2009 11 2 111 128 10.31887/DCNS.2009.11.2/cqiu 19585947
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Black M.C. Basile K.C. Breiding M.J. The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2010 Summary Report. Atlanta, GA National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2010
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Taylor G. The Chief Public Health Officer’s Report on the State of Public Health in Canada 2016 - A Focus on Family Violence in Canada. Government of Canada 2016
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Guruge S. Guruge S. Intimate partner violence: A global health perspective. Can. J. Nurs. Res. 2012 44 4 36 54 [PMID: 23448074
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Measuring violence against women: Statistical trends. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics 2013
    [Google Scholar]
  13. The shadow pandemic: combatting violence against women and girls in the COVID-19 crisis. Global Affairs Canada 2023
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Wydall S. Freeman E. Zerk R. Domestic abuse and the co-existence of dementia Dewis Choice Initiate. Centre for Age, Gender and Social Justice at Aberystwyth University 2022
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Jones L. Hughes M. Unterstaller U. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in victims of domestic violence: A review of the research. Trauma Violence Abuse 2001 2 2 99 119 10.1177/1524838001002002001
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Klugman J. Li L. Raj A. The Costs of Intimate Partner Violence in Lousiana. Newcomb Institute Tulane University 2024
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Oliver R. Alexander B. Roe S. Wlasny M. The economic and social costs of domestic abuse. Home Office 2019
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Time for action: The National Council's plan for Australia to reduce violence against women and their children 2009 Available from: https://acquire.cqu.edu.au/articles/report/Time_for_action_The_National_Council_s_plan_for_Australia_to_reduce_violence_against_women_and_their_children_2009-2021/13465511?file=38177403
  19. Intimate partner violence 2022 Available from: https://www.canada.ca/en/women-gender-equality/gender-based-violence/intimate-partner-violence.html
  20. Snowden T.M. Hinde A.K. Reid H.M.O. Christie B.R. Does mild traumatic brain injury increase the risk for dementia? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Alzheimers Dis. 2020 78 2 757 775 10.3233/JAD‑200662 33044182
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Ivany A.S. Bullock L. Schminkey D. Wells K. Sharps P. Kools S. Living in fear and prioritizing safety: Exploring women’s lives after traumatic brain injury from intimate partner violence. Qual. Health Res. 2018 28 11 1708 1718 10.1177/1049732318786705 30027811
    [Google Scholar]
  22. St Ivany A. Schminkey D. Intimate partner violence and traumatic brain injury: State of the science and next steps. Fam. Community Health 2016 39 2 129 137 10.1097/FCH.0000000000000094 26882416
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Valera E.M. Cao A. Pasternak O. White matter correlates of mild traumatic brain injuries in women subjected to intimate-partner violence: A preliminary study. J. Neurotrauma 2019 36 5 661 668 10.1089/neu.2018.5734 29873292
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Monahan K. O’Leary K.D. Head injury and battered women: An initial inquiry. Health Soc. Work 1999 24 4 269 278 10.1093/hsw/24.4.269 10605632
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Oden T.M. Insult denied: Traumatic Brain injury in battered african american women. Thesis Wright Institute Graduate School of Psychology 2000
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Jackson H. Philp E. Nuttall R.L. Diller L. Traumatic brain injury: A hidden consequence for battered women. Prof. Psychol. Res. Pr. 2002 33 1 39 45 10.1037/0735‑7028.33.1.39
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Corrigan J.D. Wolfe M. Mysiw W.J. Jackson R.D. Bogner J.A. Early identification of mild traumatic brain injury in female victims of domestic violence. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2003 188 5 S71 S76 (Suppl.) 10.1067/mob.2003.404 12748454
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Valera E.M. Berenbaum H. Brain injury in battered women. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2003 71 4 797 804 10.1037/0022‑006X.71.4.797 12924684
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Marcantonis E. The prevalence of traumatic brain injury in battered women residing in Northern New Jersey Shelters. 2004
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Roberts A.R. Kim J.H. Exploring the effects of head injuries among battered women. J. Soc. Serv. Res. 2005 32 1 33 47 10.1300/J079v32n01_03
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Hux K. Schneider T. Bennett K. Screening for traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 2009 23 1 8 14 10.1080/02699050802590353 19096967
    [Google Scholar]
  32. McFadgion A. Intimate Partner Violence and Probable Traumatic Brain Injury: Manifestations in the Lives of Abused Women. Thesis Howard University, Washington, DC., USA 2014
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Iverson KM Pogoda TK Traumatic brain injury among women veterans: an invisible wound of intimate partner violence. Medcare 2015 53 4 S112-9.(Supplement 4Suppl 1) 10.1097/MLR.0000000000000263 25767964
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Anderson J.C. Stockman J.K. Sabri B. Campbell D.W. Campbell J.C. Injury outcomes in African American and African Caribbean women: the role of intimate partner violence. J. Emerg. Nurs. 2015 41 1 36 42 10.1016/j.jen.2014.01.015 24768096
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Gagnon K.L. DePrince A.P. Head injury screening and intimate partner violence: A brief report. J. Trauma Dissociation 2017 18 4 635 644 10.1080/15299732.2016.1252001 27775489
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Iverson K.M. Dardis C.M. Pogoda T.K. Traumatic brain injury and PTSD symptoms as a consequence of intimate partner violence. Compr. Psychiatry 2017 74 80 87 10.1016/j.comppsych.2017.01.007 28126481
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Valera E. Kucyi A. Brain injury in women experiencing intimate partner-violence: neural mechanistic evidence of an “invisible” trauma. Brain Imaging Behav. 2017 11 6 1664 1677 10.1007/s11682‑016‑9643‑1 27766587
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Campbell J.C. Anderson J.C. McFadgion A. The effects of intimate partner violence and probable traumatic brain injury on central nervous system symptoms. J. Womens Health (Larchmt.) 2018 27 6 761 767 10.1089/jwh.2016.6311 29083256
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Farley M Banks ME Ackerman RJ Golding JM Screening for traumatic brain injury in prostituted women. Dignity 2018 3 2 10.23860/dignity.2018.03.02.05
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Baumann R.M. Hamilton-Wright S. Riley D.L. Experiences of violence and head injury among women and transgender women sex workers. Sex. Res. Soc. Policy 2019 16 3 278 288 10.1007/s13178‑018‑0334‑0
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Ralston B. Rable J. Larson T. Handmaker H. Lifshitz J. Forensic nursing examination to screen for traumatic brain injury following intimate partner violence. J. Aggress. Maltreat. Trauma 2019 28 6 732 743 10.1080/10926771.2019.1637988
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Cimino A.N. Yi G. Patch M. The effect of intimate partner violence and probable traumatic brain injury on mental health outcomes for black women. J. Aggress. Maltreat. Trauma 2019 28 6 714 731 10.1080/10926771.2019.1587657 31929719
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Wong J.Y.H. Choi A.W.M. Wong J.K.S. Impact of mild traumatic brain injury on physical, mental and cognitive functioning of abused women admitted to emergency units. Health Soc. Care Community 2022 30 2 e428 e434 10.1111/hsc.13218 33159412
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Rajaram S.S. Reisher P. Garlinghouse M. Intimate partner violence and brain injury screening. Violence Against Women 2021 27 10 1548 1565 10.1177/1077801220947164 32838674
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Fortier C.B. Beck B.M. Werner K.B. The boston assessment of traumatic brain injury-lifetime semistructured interview for assessment of tbi and subconcussive injury among female survivors of intimate partner violence: evidence of research utility and validity. J. Head Trauma Rehabil. 2022 37 3 E175 E185 10.1097/HTR.0000000000000700 34145160
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Galovski T.E. Werner K.B. Weaver T.L. Massed cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in women survivors of intimate partner violence. Psychol. Trauma 2022 14 5 769 779 10.1037/tra0001100 34472941
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Maldonado-Rodriguez N. Characterizing blood biomarkers of traumatic brain injury in women who haved experiecned intimate partner violence. Thesis The University of British Columbia 2021
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Likitlersuang J. Brown E.M. Salat D.H. Neural correlates of traumatic brain injury in women survivors of intimate partner violence: A structural and functional connectivity neuroimaging study. J. Head Trauma Rehabil. 2022 37 1 E30 E38 10.1097/HTR.0000000000000758 34985038
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Saleem G.T. Champagne M. Haider M.N. Prevalence and risk factors for intimate partner physical violence–related acquired brain injury among visitors to justice center in New York. J. Head Trauma Rehabil. 2022 37 1 E10 E19 10.1097/HTR.0000000000000750 34985036
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Gabbe B.J. Braaf S. Cameron P.A. Berecki-Gisolf J. Epidemiology and 6- and 12-month outcomes of intimate partner violence and other violence-related traumatic brain injury in major trauma: A population-based trauma registry study. J. Head Trauma Rehabil. 2022 37 1 E1 E9 10.1097/HTR.0000000000000741 34985035
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Toccalino D. Moore A. Cripps E. Exploring the intersection of brain injury and mental health in survivors of intimate partner violence: A scoping review. Front. Public Health 2023 11 1100549 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1100549 36935693
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Haag H.L. Jones D. Joseph T. Colantonio A. Battered and brain injured: Traumatic Brain injury among women survivors of intimate partner violence—a scoping review. Trauma Violence Abuse 2022 23 4 1270 1287 10.1177/1524838019850623 31170896
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Ramalho J. Castillo M. Dementia resulting from traumatic brain injury. Dement. Neuropsychol. 2015 9 4 356 368 10.1590/1980‑57642015DN94000356 29213985
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Burczycka M. Trends in self-reported spousal violence in Canada, 2014 Family violence in Canada: A statistical profile, 2014, Juristat. Statistics Canada Catalogue 2016
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Leung F.H. Thompson K. Weaver D.F. Evaluating spousal abuse as a potential risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease: Rationale, needs and challenges. Neuroepidemiology 2006 27 1 13 16 10.1159/000093894 16770080
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Shymanskaya A. Kohn N. Habel U. Wagels L. Brain network changes in adult victims of violence. Front. Psychiatry 2023 14 1040861 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1040861 36816407
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Daugherty J.C. Verdejo-Román J. Pérez-García M. Hidalgo-Ruzzante N. Structural brain alterations in female survivors of intimate partner violence. J. Interpers. Violence 2022 37 7-8 NP4684 NP4717 10.1177/0886260520959621 32954938
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Morganti-Kossmann M.C. Rancan M. Stahel P.F. Kossmann T. Inflammatory response in acute traumatic brain injury: a double-edged sword. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 2002 8 2 101 105 10.1097/00075198‑200204000‑00002 12386508
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Bhatia S. Rawal R. Sharma P. Singh T. Singh M. Singh V. Mitochondrial dysfunction in alzheimer’s disease: Opportunities for drug development. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 2022 20 4 675 692 10.2174/1570159X19666210517114016 33998995
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Zhao Y. Zhao B. Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2013 2013 1 10 10.1155/2013/316523 23983897
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Bougea A. Anagnostouli M. Angelopoulou E. Spanou I. Chrousos G. Psychosocial and trauma-related stress and risk of dementia: A meta-analytic systematic review of longitudinal studies. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol. 2022 35 1 24 37 10.1177/0891988720973759 33205677
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Danielsen T. Hauch C. Kelly L. White C.L. Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)-type neuropathology in a young victim of domestic abuse. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 2021 80 6 624 627 10.1093/jnen/nlab015 33706376
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Bieniek K.F. Ross O.A. Cormier K.A. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy pathology in a neurodegenerative disorders brain bank. Acta Neuropathol. 2015 130 6 877 889 10.1007/s00401‑015‑1502‑4 26518018
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Stern R.A. Daneshvar D.H. Baugh C.M. Clinical presentation of chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Neurology 2013 81 13 1122 1129 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182a55f7f 23966253
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Turner R.C. Lucke-Wold B.P. Robson M.J. Lee J.M. Bailes J.E. Alzheimer’s disease and chronic traumatic encephalopathy: Distinct but possibly overlapping disease entities. Brain Inj. 2016 30 11 1279 1292 10.1080/02699052.2016.1193631 27715315
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Roberts G.W. Whitwell H.L. Acland P.R. Bruton C.J. Dementia in a punch-drunk wife. Lancet 1990 335 8694 918 919 10.1016/0140‑6736(90)90520‑F 1970008
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Casper S.T. O’Donnell K. The punch-drunk boxer and the battered wife: Gender and brain injury research. Soc. Sci. Med. 2020 245 112688 10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112688 31830739
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Alosco M.L. Tripodis Y. Jarnagin J. Repetitive head impact exposure and later‐life plasma total tau in former National Football League players. Alzheimers Dement. (Amst.) 2017 7 1 33 40 10.1016/j.dadm.2016.11.003 28229128
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Esopenko C. Jain D. Adhikari S.P. Intimate partner violence-related brain injury: unmasking and addressing the gaps. J. Neurotrauma 2024 41 19-20 2219 2237 10.1089/neu.2023.0543 38323539
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Olivera A. Lejbman N. Jeromin A. Peripheral total tau in military personnel who sustain traumatic brain injuries during deployment. JAMA Neurol. 2015 72 10 1109 1116 10.1001/jamaneurol.2015.1383 26237304
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Bailes J.E. Petraglia A.L. Omalu B.I. Nauman E. Talavage T. Role of subconcussion in repetitive mild traumatic brain injury. J. Neurosurg. 2013 119 5 1235 1245 10.3171/2013.7.JNS121822 23971952
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Dan L. Zhang Z. Alzheimer’s disease: An axonal injury disease? Front. Aging Neurosci. 2023 15 1264448 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1264448 37927337
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Feole M. Pozo Devoto V.M. Dragišić N. Swedish Alzheimer’s disease variant perturbs activity of retrograde molecular motors and causes widespread derangement of axonal transport pathways. J. Biol. Chem. 2024 300 4 107137 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.107137 38447793
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Schwab N. Tator C. Hazrati L.N. DNA damage as a marker of brain damage in individuals with history of concussions. Lab. Invest. 2019 99 7 1008 1018 10.1038/s41374‑019‑0199‑8 30760862
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Myung N.H. Zhu X. Kruman I.I. Evidence of DNA damage in Alzheimer disease: phosphorylation of histone H2AX in astrocytes. Age (Omaha) 2008 30 4 209 215 10.1007/s11357‑008‑9050‑7 19424844
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Sorenson S.B. Joshi M. Sivitz E. A systematic review of the epidemiology of nonfatal strangulation, a human rights and health concern. Am. J. Public Health 2014 104 11 e54 e61 10.2105/AJPH.2014.302191 25211747
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Hilal S. Xin X. Ang S.L. Risk factors and consequences of cortical thickness in an asian population. Medicine (Baltimore) 2015 94 23 e852 10.1097/MD.0000000000000852 26061305
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Karakurt G. Whiting K. Jones S.E. Lowe M.J. Rao S.M. Brain injury and mental health among the victims of intimate partner violence: A case-series exploratory study. Front. Psychol. 2021 12 710602 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710602 34675836
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Hillstrom C. The hidden epidemic of brain injuries from domestic violence. 2022 Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/01/magazine/brain-trauma-domestic-violence.html
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Kumar V. Kim S.H. Bishayee K. Dysfunctional glucose metabolism in alzheimer’s disease onset and potential pharmacological interventions. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022 23 17 9540 10.3390/ijms23179540 36076944
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Adhikari S.P. Daugherty J.C. Quiroz Molinares N. A Four-country study of strangulation-related alterations in consciousness in women who have experienced intimate partner violence: Co-occurrence with traumatic brain injuries and measures of psychological distress. J. Neurotrauma 2024 41 13-14 e1668 e1679 10.1089/neu.2023.0440 38666734
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Severs E. James T. Letrondo P. Løvland L. Marchant N.L. Mukadam N. Traumatic life events and risk for dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Geriatr. 2023 23 1 587 10.1186/s12877‑023‑04287‑1 37740188
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Ouanes S. Popp J. High cortisol and the risk of dementia and alzheimer’s disease: A review of the literature. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2019 11 43 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00043 30881301
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Cheng Y.J. Lin C.H. Lane H.Y. Involvement of cholinergic, adrenergic, and glutamatergic network modulation with cognitive dysfunction in alzheimer’s disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021 22 5 2283 10.3390/ijms22052283 33668976
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Cid A. Leguisamo M. Gender equality does not prevent sexual abuse of women – awareness of a global public health problem. Health Care Women Int. 2022 43 7-8 885 897 10.1080/07399332.2021.1944149 34339608
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Thurston R.C. Chang Y. Matthews K.A. von Känel R. Koenen K. Association of sexual harassment and sexual assault with midlife Women’s mental and physical health. JAMA Intern. Med. 2019 179 1 48 53 10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.4886 30285071
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Thurston R.C. Jakubowski K.P. Wu M. Sexual assault and white matter hyperintensities among midlife women. Brain Imaging Behav. 2022 16 2 773 780 10.1007/s11682‑021‑00536‑2 34553332
    [Google Scholar]
  88. McCloskey L.A. Williams C.M. Lichter E. Gerber M. Ganz M.L. Sege R. Abused women disclose partner interference with health care: an unrecognized form of battering. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2007 22 8 1067 1072 10.1007/s11606‑007‑0199‑z 17530312
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Harris S.B. For better or for worse. J. Elder Abuse Negl. 1996 8 1 1 33 10.1300/J084v08n01_01
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Zerk R. Wydall S. The combination of dementia and domestic abuse is all too often overlooked. BioMed Res Int 2020 Available from: https://theconversation.com/the-combination-of-dementia-and-domestic-abuse-is-all-too-often-overlooked-139535
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Cooper C. Livingston G. Elder Abuse and Dementia. Advances in Elder Abuse Research: Practice, Legislation and Policy. Phelan A. Cham Springer International Publishing 2020 137 147 10.1007/978‑3‑030‑25093‑5_10
    [Google Scholar]
  92. McQueenie R. Ellis D.A. McConnachie A. Wilson P. Williamson A.E. Morbidity, mortality and missed appointments in healthcare: A national retrospective data linkage study. BMC Med. 2019 17 1 2 10.1186/s12916‑018‑1234‑0 30630493
    [Google Scholar]
  93. McCausland B. Knight L. Page L. Trevillion K. A systematic review of the prevalence and odds of domestic abuse victimization among people with dementia. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 2016 28 5 475 484 10.1080/09540261.2016.1215296 27564566
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Flannery R.B. Domestic violence and elderly dementia sufferers. Am. J. Alzheimers Dis. Other Demen. 2003 18 1 21 23 10.1177/153331750301800107 12613130
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Okun L. Woman abuse: Facts replacing myths. Albany, NY, US State University of New York Press 1986
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Barnett O.W. Why battered women do not leave, part 1: External Inhibiting Factors Within Society. Trauma Violence Abuse 2000 1 343 372 10.1177/1524838000001004003
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Yan E. Kwok T. Abuse of older Chinese with dementia by family caregivers: an inquiry into the role of caregiver burden. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2011 26 5 527 535 10.1002/gps.2561 20690132
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Perach R. Rusted J. Harris P.R. Miles E. Emotion regulation and decision-making in persons with dementia: A scoping review. Dementia 2021 20 5 1832 1854 10.1177/1471301220971630 33226266
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Dong X. Chen R. Simon M.A. Elder abuse and dementia: a review of the research and health policy. Health Aff. (Millwood) 2014 33 4 642 649 10.1377/hlthaff.2013.1261 24711326
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Sweet P.L. The sociology of gaslighting. Am. Sociol. Rev. 2019 84 5 851 875 10.1177/0003122419874843
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Stall N.M. Kim S.J. Hardacre K.A. Association of informal caregiver distress with health outcomes of community‐dwelling dementia care recipients: A systematic review. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2019 67 3 609 617 10.1111/jgs.15690 30536383
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Yan E. Abuse of older persons with dementia by family caregivers: results of a 6‐month prospective study in Hong Kong. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2014 29 10 1018 1027 10.1002/gps.4092 24578325
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Hamberger L.K. Hastings J.E. Personality correlates of men who abuse their partners: A cross-validation study. J. Fam. Violence 1986 1 4 323 341 10.1007/BF00978276
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Cooper C. Selwood A. Blanchard M. Walker Z. Blizard R. Livingston G. The determinants of family carers’ abusive behaviour to people with dementia: Results of the CARD study. J. Affect. Disord. 2010 121 1-2 136 142 10.1016/j.jad.2009.05.001 19446884
    [Google Scholar]
  105. VandeWeerd C. Paveza G.J. Fulmer T. Abuse and neglect in older adults with Alzheimer’s disease. Nurs. Clin. North Am. 2006 41 1 43 55 [v-vi. 10.1016/j.cnur.2005.09.004 16492453
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Benbow S.M. Haddad P.M. Sexual abuse of the elderly mentally ill. Postgrad. Med. J. 1993 69 816 803 807 10.1136/pgmj.69.816.803 8290413
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Pote S.C. Wright S.L. Evaluating anticipatory grief as a moderator of life and marital satisfaction for spousal caregivers of individuals with dementia. Educ. Gerontol. 2018 44 2-3 196 207 10.1080/03601277.2018.1438085
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Measuring up to 2015: A yearly report on how Ontario’s health system is performin. 2015 Available from: https://www.hqontario.ca/portals/0/documents/pr/measuring-up-2015-en.pdf
  109. Weerd C.V. Paveza G.J. Verbal mistreatment in older adults: A look at persons with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers in the state of Florida. J. Elder Abuse Negl. 2005 17 4 11 30 10.1300/J084v17n04_02 17050490
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Cooney C. Howard R. Lawlor B. Abuse of vulnerable people with dementia by their carers: can we identify those most at risk? Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2006 21 6 564 571 10.1002/gps.1525 16783768
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Selwood A. Cooper C. Owens C. Blanchard M. Livingston G. What would help me stop abusing? The family carer’s perspective. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2009 21 2 309 313 10.1017/S104161020800834X 19250560
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Cooper C Selwood A Blanchard M Walker Z Blizard R Livingston G Abuse of people with dementia by family carers: representative cross sectional survey. BMJ 2009 338 jan22 2 b155 10.1136/bmj.b155 119164392
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Wiglesworth A. Mosqueda L. Mulnard R. Liao S. Gibbs L. Fitzgerald W. Screening for abuse and neglect of people with dementia. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2010 58 3 493 500 10.1111/j.1532‑5415.2010.02737.x 20398118
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Kishimoto Y. Terada S. Takeda N. Abuse of people with cognitive impairment by family caregivers in Japan (a cross-sectional study). Psychiatry Res. 2013 209 3 699 704 10.1016/j.psychres.2013.01.025 23462386
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Rivera-Navarro J. Sepúlveda R. Contador I. Detection of maltreatment of people with dementia in Spain: usefulness of the Caregiver Abuse Screen (CASE). Eur. J. Ageing 2018 15 1 87 99 10.1007/s10433‑017‑0427‑2 29531518
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Orfila F. Coma-Solé M. Cabanas M. Cegri-Lombardo F. Moleras-Serra A. Pujol-Ribera E. Family caregiver mistreatment of the elderly: prevalence of risk and associated factors. BMC Public Health 2018 18 1 167 10.1186/s12889‑018‑5067‑8 29357866
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Wang M. Sun H. Zhang J. Ruan J. Prevalence and associated factors of elder abuse in family caregivers of older people with dementia in central China cross‐sectional study. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2019 34 2 299 307 10.1002/gps.5020 30370657
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Pickering C.E.Z. Yefimova M. Maxwell C. Puga F. Sullivan T. Daily context for abusive and neglectful behavior in family caregiving for dementia. Gerontologist 2020 60 3 483 493 10.1093/geront/gnz110 31425586
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Chen W. Fang F. Chen Y. Wang J. Gao Y. Xiao J. The relationship between personality traits, caring characteristics and abuse tendency among professional caregivers of older people with dementia in long‐term care facilities. J. Clin. Nurs. 2020 29 17-18 3425 3434 10.1111/jocn.15380 32562434
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Steinsheim G. Saga S. Olsen B. Broen H.K. Malmedal W. Abusive episodes among home-dwelling persons with dementia and their informal caregivers: A cross-sectional Norwegian study. BMC Geriatr. 2022 22 1 852 10.1186/s12877‑022‑03569‑4 36371161
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Välimäki T. Mäki-Petäjä-Leinonen A. Vaismoradi M. Abuse in the caregiving relationship between older people with memory disorders and family caregivers: A systematic review. J. Adv. Nurs. 2020 76 8 1977 1987 10.1111/jan.14397 32301130
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Hsieh C.J. Yin P.F. Chiu C.Y. Hsiao Y.P. Hsiao Y.L. Support and empowerment for older adult spousal caregiving of people with mild and moderate dementia: A participatory action research. Health Care 2022 10 3 569 10.3390/healthcare10030569 35327047
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Wawrziczny E. Berna G. Ducharme F. Kergoat M.J. Pasquier F. Antoine P. Modeling the distress of spousal caregivers of people with dementia. J. Alzheimers Dis. 2016 55 2 703 716 10.3233/JAD‑160558 27716667
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Pozzebon M. Douglas J. Ames D. Spouses’ experience of living with a partner diagnosed with a dementia: A synthesis of the qualitative research. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2016 28 4 537 556 10.1017/S1041610215002239 26750862
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Dittbrenner H. Alzheimer’s disease--the long goodbye. Caring 1994 13 8 18 20
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Holley C.K. Mast B.T. Predictors of anticipatory grief in dementia caregivers. Clin. Gerontol. 2010 33 3 223 236 10.1080/07317111003793443
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Duplantier S.C. Williamson F.A. Barriers and facilitators of health and well-being in informal caregivers of dementia patients: A qualitative study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023 20 5 4328 10.3390/ijerph20054328 36901336
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Weaver D. Dementia’s hidden darkness: Violence and domestic abuse. The conversation. 2018 Available from: https://theconversation.com/dementias-hidden-darkness-violence-and-domestic-abuse-104308
  129. Rousseau P. Solitary caregiving in Alzheimer’s disease: A slippery slope to abuse. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2023 71 7 2326 2327 10.1111/jgs.18385 37104012
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Benavides M. Clements v. Haskovec. 2008 Available from: https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2192003/clements-v-haskovec/
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Value-for-Money Audit Long-Term Care Homes: Delivery of Resident-Centred Care. Ministry of Long-Term Care 2023
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Nursing home and seniors’ home challenges, facility changes and resident COVID-19 cases, 2021. Government of Canada 2022
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Long-Term Care Home Wait Times in Ontario King’s Printer for Ontario 2024
    [Google Scholar]
  134. The Reality of Caring Distress among the caregivers of home care patients. Toronto Queen’s Printer for Ontario 2016
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Dementia and domestic abuse. 2020 Available from: https://sheffielddact.org.uk/domestic-abuse/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2020/12/Dementia-and-Domestic-Abuse-Dec-2020-Final-.pdf
  136. Coyne A.C. Reichman W.E. Berbig L.J. The relationship between dementia and elder abuse. Am. J. Psychiatry 1993 150 4 643 646 10.1176/ajp.150.4.643 8465884
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Band-Winterstein T. Eisikovits Z. “Aging out” of violence: The multiple faces of intimate violence over the life span. Qual. Health Res. 2009 19 2 164 180 10.1177/1049732308329305 19074633
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Bergeron L.R. An elder abuse case study. J. Gerontol. Soc. Work 2001 34 4 47 63 10.1300/J083v34n04_05
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Seaver C. Muted Lives. J. Elder Abuse Negl. 1996 8 2 3 21 10.1300/J084v08n02_02
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Storey J.E. Risk factors for elder abuse and neglect: A review of the literature. Aggress. Violent. Behav. 2020 50 101339 10.1016/j.avb.2019.101339
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Burgess A.W. Phillips S.L. Sexual abuse and dementia in older people. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2006 54 7 1154 1155 10.1111/j.1532‑5415.2006.00779.x 16866700
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Burgess A.W. Phillips S.L. Sexual abuse, trauma and dementia in the elderly: A retrospective study of 284 cases. Vict. Offenders 2006 1 2 193 204 10.1080/15564880600663935
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Lichtenberg P.A. Strzepek D.M. Assessments of institutionalized dementia patients’ competencies to participate in intimate relationships. Gerontologist 1990 30 1 117 120 10.1093/geront/30.1.117 2311954
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Lichtenberg P.A. Sexuality and physical intimacy in long-term care. Occup. Ther. Health Care 2014 28 1 42 50 10.3109/07380577.2013.865858 24354331
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Marshall R.D. Stein D.J. Liebowitz M.R. Yehuda R. A pharmacotherapy algorithm in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr. Ann. 1996 26 4 217 226 10.3928/0048‑5713‑19960401‑12
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Hafemeister T.L. Financial abuse of the elderly in domestic setting. Elder Mistreatment: Abuse, Neglect, and Exploitation in an Aging America, Washington (DC). Bonnie R. Wallace R. US National Academies Press 2003
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Scouller K. Breaking the chains of financial abuse this Domestic Violence Awareness Month. The Dominion Post 2023
    [Google Scholar]
  148. O’Keeffe M. Hills A. Doyle M. UK study of elder abuse and neglect of older people: Prevalance survey report. London National Centre for Social Research 2007
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Ku L-J.E. Huang S-C. Liao Y-H. Kang H-Y. Chung C-A. Exploring financial abuse involving people with dementia: An empirical legal study of nation-wide court rulings over a decade in Taiwan. Ageing Soc. 2023 2 1 17 10.1017/S0144686X23000533
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Whaley K. Cull A. Financial abuse, neglect and the power of attorney. 2010 Available from: https://www.lco-cdo.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/ccel-presentations_WSG%20-%20Kim%20Whaley%20and%20Ian%20Hull.pdf
  151. Manthorpe J. Samsi K. Rapaport J. Responding to the financial abuse of people with dementia: a qualitative study of safeguarding experiences in England. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2012 24 9 1454 1464 10.1017/S1041610212000348 22464777
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Razani J. Kakos B. Orieta-Barbalace C. Predicting caregiver burden from daily functional abilities of patients with mild dementia. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2007 55 9 1415 1420 10.1111/j.1532‑5415.2007.01307.x 17767684
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Clancy M. McDaid B. O’Neill D. O’Brien J.G. National profiling of elder abuse referrals. Age Ageing 2011 40 3 346 352 10.1093/ageing/afr023 21414948
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Walker S.J. Hester M. McCarthy E. The use of chemical control within coercive controlling intimate partner violence and abuse. Violence Against Women 2023 29 14 2730 2753 10.1177/10778012231197579 37661810
    [Google Scholar]
  155. Kunik M.E. Walgama J.P. Lynn Snow A. Documentation, assessment, and treatment of aggression in patients with newly diagnosed dementia. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 2007 21 2 115 121 10.1097/WAD.0b013e318065c4ba 17545736
    [Google Scholar]
  156. Burnett J. Jackson S.L. Sinha A.K. Five-year all-cause mortality rates across five categories of substantiated elder abuse occurring in the community. J. Elder Abuse Negl. 2016 28 2 59 75 10.1080/08946566.2016.1142920
    [Google Scholar]
  157. Rosen T. Stern M.E. Elman A. Mulcare M.R. Identifying and initiating intervention for elder abuse and neglect in the emergency department. Clin. Geriatr. Med. 2018 34 3 435 451 10.1016/j.cger.2018.04.007 30031426
    [Google Scholar]
  158. Cahill S. Shapiro M. ‘I think he might have hit me once’: Aggression towards caregivers in dementia care. Aust. J. Ageing 1993 12 4 10 15 10.1111/j.1741‑6612.1993.tb00612.x
    [Google Scholar]
  159. Dettmore D. Kolanowski A. Boustani M. Aggression in persons with dementia: Use of nursing theory to guide clinical practice. Geriatr. Nurs. 2009 30 1 8 17 10.1016/j.gerinurse.2008.03.001 19215808
    [Google Scholar]
  160. Cooper C. Selwood A. Blanchard M. Livingston G. Abusive behaviour experienced by family carers from people with dementia: the CARD (caring for relatives with dementia) study. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 2010 81 6 592 596 10.1136/jnnp.2009.190934 19955110
    [Google Scholar]
  161. Walaszek A. Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia. Washington, DC, USA American Psychiatric Association Publishing 2020
    [Google Scholar]
  162. Tsai S.J. Hwang J.P. Yang C.H. Liu K.M. Lirng J.F. Inappropriate sexual behaviors in dementia: A preliminary report. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 1999 13 1 60 62 10.1097/00002093‑199903000‑00009 10192644
    [Google Scholar]
  163. Lyketsos C.G. Lopez O. Jones B. Fitzpatrick A.L. Breitner J. DeKosky S. Prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia and mild cognitive impairment: results from the cardiovascular health study. JAMA 2002 288 12 1475 1483 10.1001/jama.288.12.1475 12243634
    [Google Scholar]
  164. Kamel H.K. Hajjar R.R. Sexuality in the nursing home, part 2: Managing abnormal behavior--legal and ethical issues. J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc. 2004 5 2 S48 S52 [Suppl. 10.1016/S1525‑8610(04)70093‑6 14984611
    [Google Scholar]
  165. Wallace M. Safer M. Hypersexuality among cognitively impaired older adults. Geriatr. Nurs. 2009 30 4 230 237 10.1016/j.gerinurse.2008.09.001 19665665
    [Google Scholar]
  166. Band-Winterstein T. Avieli H. Women coping with a partner’s dementia‐related violence: A qualitative study. J. Nurs. Scholarsh. 2019 51 4 368 379 10.1111/jnu.12485 31173457
    [Google Scholar]
  167. Woods B. O’Philbin L. Farrell E.M. Spector A.E. Orrell M. Reminiscence therapy for dementia. Cochrane Libr. 2018 2018 3 CD001120 10.1002/14651858.CD001120.pub3 29493789
    [Google Scholar]
  168. Khachiyants N. Trinkle D. Son S.J. Kim K.Y. Sundown syndrome in persons with dementia: An update. Psychiatry Investig. 2011 8 4 275 287 10.4306/pi.2011.8.4.275 22216036
    [Google Scholar]
  169. Wydall S. Zerk R. Domestic abuse and older people: Factors influencing help-seeking. The J. Adult Protect 2017 19 5 247 10.1108/JAP‑03‑2017‑0010
    [Google Scholar]
  170. Rockwood K. Fay S. Hamilton L. Ross E. Moorhouse P. Good days and bad days in dementia: A qualitative chart review of variable symptom expression. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2014 26 8 1239 1246 10.1017/S1041610214000222 24565377
    [Google Scholar]
  171. We S.S. Caring enough: The dementia patient who abused Us. Narrat. Inq. Bioeth. 2020 10 2 112 114 10.1353/nib.2020.0036 33416576
    [Google Scholar]
  172. Kong J. Moorman S.M. Caring for My abuser: Childhood maltreatment and caregiver depression. Gerontologist 2015 55 4 656 666 10.1093/geront/gnt136 24265506
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/car/10.2174/0115672050414496251124094000
Loading
The Cause-and-Consequence Relationships between Domestic Abuse and Alzheimer’s Disease: Identification of Five Subtypes
Bentham Science Publishers ; https://doi.org/10.2174/0115672050414496251124094000
/content/journals/car/10.2174/0115672050414496251124094000
/content/journals/car/10.2174/0115672050414496251124094000
Loading

Data & Media loading...


  • Article Type:     Review Article
Keywords: Alzheimer’s disease ; dementia ; intimate partner violence ; Domestic violence ; caregiver abuse ; domestic abuse

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test