Skip to content
2000
image of The Spectrum of Allergic Rhinitis: Risk Factors and their Clinical Relevance

Abstract

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a common, chronic inflammatory disorder of the upper respiratory tract, primarily caused by exposure to environmental allergens such as pollen, dust mites, and mold. It has a substantial impact on daily life, often leading to sleep disruption, decreased productivity, and a heightened risk of asthma and other related conditions. The underlying mechanism of AR involves an IgE-mediated immune reaction, with both immediate and delayed inflammatory responses contributing to ongoing symptoms. AR can be classified into several types-seasonal, perennial, occupational, and drug-induced-which aids in its diagnosis and personalized management. Key risk factors include hereditary susceptibility, environmental pollution, and modern lifestyle factors. Diagnosis is typically based on a detailed medical history, skin prick testing, and serum IgE measurements. Treatment strategies involve the use of antihistamines, intranasal corticosteroids, and leukotriene receptor antagonists, complemented by allergen-specific immunotherapy and lifestyle modifications such as allergen avoidance. In recent years, advanced therapies like targeted biologics (e.g., ) and probiotic-based treatments have emerged, offering promising new avenues for patients with persistent or severe symptoms.

© 2025 Bentham Science Publishers
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/raiad/10.2174/0127722708397912251001102439
2025-10-21
2025-12-06

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/raiad/10.2174/0127722708397912251001102439
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Zhang Y. Lan F. Zhang L. Advances and highlights in allergic rhinitis. Allergy 2021 76 11 3383 3389 10.1111/all.15044 34379805
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Bousquet P.J. Leynaert B. Neukirch F. Sunyer J. Janson C.M. Anto J. Jarvis D. Burney P. Geographical distribution of atopic rhinitis in the European Community Respiratory Health Survey I. Allergy 2008 63 10 1301 1309 10.1111/j.1398‑9995.2008.01824.x 18782108
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Vandenplas O. Vinnikov D. Blanc P.D. Agache I. Bachert C. Bewick M. Cardell L.O. Cullinan P. Demoly P. Descatha A. Fonseca J. Haahtela T. Hellings P.W. Jamart J. Jantunen J. Kalayci Ö. Price D. Samolinski B. Sastre J. Tian L. Valero A.L. Zhang X. Bousquet J. Impact of rhinitis on work productivity: A systematic review. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2018 6 4 1274 1286.e9 10.1016/j.jaip.2017.09.002 29017832
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Devillier P. Bousquet J. Salvator H. Naline E. Grassin-Delyle S. de Beaumont O. In allergic rhinitis, work, classroom and activity impairments are weakly related to other outcome measures. Clin Exp Allergy 2016 46 11 1456 1464 10.1111/cea.12801 27562177
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Dondi A. Tripodi S. Panetta V. Asero R. Businco A.D.R. Bianchi A. Carlucci A. Ricci G. Bellini F. Maiello N. Miraglia del Giudice M. Frediani T. Sodano S. Dello Iacono I. Macrì F. Massaccesi V. Caffarelli C. Rinaldi L. Patria M.F. Varin E. Peroni D. Chinellato I. Chini L. Moschese V. Lucarelli S. Bernardini R. Pingitore G. Pelosi U. Tosca M. Paravati F. La Grutta S. Meglio P. Calvani M. Plebani M. Matricardi P.M. Pollen‐induced allergic rhinitis in 1360 Italian children: Comorbidities and determinants of severity. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2013 24 8 742 751 10.1111/pai.12136 24236692
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Zou Q.Y. Shen Y. Ke X. Hong S.L. Kang H.Y. Exposure to air pollution and risk of prevalence of childhood allergic rhinitis: A meta-analysis. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2018 112 82 90 10.1016/j.ijporl.2018.06.039 30055746
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Naclerio R. Ansotegui I.J. Bousquet J. Canonica G.W. D’Amato G. Rosario N. Pawankar R. Peden D. Bergmann K.C. Bielory L. Caraballo L. Cecchi L. Cepeda S.A.M. Chong Neto H.J. Galán C. Gonzalez Diaz S.N. Idriss S. Popov T. Ramon G.D. Ridolo E. Rottem M. Songnuan W. Rouadi P. International expert consensus on the management of allergic rhinitis (AR) aggravated by air pollutants. World Allergy Organ J 2020 13 3 100106 10.1016/j.waojou.2020.100106 32256939
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Moya J. Bearer C.F. Etzel R.A. Children’s behavior and physiology and how it affects exposure to environmental contaminants. Pediatrics 2004 113 4 996 1006 10.1542/peds.113.S3.996 15060192
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Eguiluz-Gracia I. Mathioudakis A.G. Bartel S. Vijverberg S.J.H. Fuertes E. Comberiati P. Cai Y.S. Tomazic P.V. Diamant Z. Vestbo J. Galan C. Hoffmann B. The need for clean air: The way air pollution and climate change affect allergic rhinitis and asthma. Allergy 2020 75 9 2170 2184 10.1111/all.14177 31916265
    [Google Scholar]
  10. D’Amato G. Annesi-Maesano I. Cecchi L. D’Amato M. Latest news on relationship between thunderstorms and respiratory allergy, severe asthma, and deaths for asthma. Allergy 2019 74 1 9 11 10.1111/all.13616 30242857
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Guerra S. Sherrill D.L. Martinez F.D. Barbee R.A. Rhinitis as an independent risk factor for adult-onset asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002 109 3 419 425 10.1067/mai.2002.121701 11897985
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Shaaban R. Zureik M. Soussan D. Neukirch C. Heinrich J. Sunyer J. Wjst M. Cerveri I. Pin I. Bousquet J. Jarvis D. Burney P.G. Neukirch F. Leynaert B. Rhinitis and onset of asthma: A longitudinal population-based study. Lancet 2008 372 9643 1049 1057 10.1016/S0140‑6736(08)61446‑4 18805333
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bielory L. Allergic conjunctivitis and the impact of allergic rhinitis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2010 10 2 122 134 10.1007/s11882‑010‑0087‑1 20425504
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Cruz A.A. Popov T. Pawankar R. Annesi-Maesano I. Fokkens W. Kemp J. Ohta K. Price D. Bousquet J. Common characteristics of upper and lower airways in rhinitis and asthma: ARIA update, in collaboration with GA 2 LEN. Allergy 2007 62 s84 1 41 10.1111/j.1398‑9995.2007.01551.x 17924930
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Westman M. Kull I. Lind T. Melén E. Stjärne P. Toskala E. Wickman M. Bergström A. The link between parental allergy and offspring allergic and nonallergic rhinitis. Allergy 2013 68 12 1571 1578 10.1111/all.12267 24117663
    [Google Scholar]
  16. McKeever T.M. Lewis S.A. Smith C. Collins J. Heatlie H. Frischer M. Hubbard R. Siblings, multiple births, and the incidence of allergic disease: A birth cohort study using the West Midlands general practice research database. Thorax 2001 56 10 758 762 10.1136/thorax.56.10.758 11562513
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Genuneit J. Strachan D.P. Büchele G. Weber J. Loss G. Sozanska B. Boznanski A. Horak E. Heederik D. Braun-Fahrländer C. von Mutius E. The combined effects of family size and farm exposure on childhood hay fever and atopy. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2013 24 3 293 298 10.1111/pai.12053 23551831
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Sarin S. Undem B. Sanico A. Togias A. The role of the nervous system in rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006 118 5 999 1014 10.1016/j.jaci.2006.09.013 17088122
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Wheatley L.M. Togias A. Allergic Rhinitis. N Engl J Med 2015 372 5 456 463 10.1056/NEJMcp1412282 25629743
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Small P. Frenkiel S. Becker A. Boisvert P. Bouchard J. Carr S. Cockcroft D. Denburg J. Desrosiers M. Gall R. Hamid Q. Hébert J. Javer A. Keith P. Kim H. Lavigne F¸. Lemiàre C. Massoud E. Payton K. Schellenberg B. Sussman G. Tannenbaum D. Watson W. Witterick I. Wright E. Rhinitis: A practical and comprehensive approach to assessment and therapy. J Otolaryngol 2007 36 S1 S5 10.2310/7070.2006.X002
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Lee P. Mace S. An approach to allergic rhinitis. Allergy Rounds 2009 1 1
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Bousquet J. Bachert C. Canonica G.W. Casale T.B. Cruz A.A. Lockey R.J. Zuberbier T. Unmet needs in severe chronic upper airway disease (SCUAD). J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009 124 3 428 433 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.06.027 19660803
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Scadding G. Bousquet J. Bachert C. Fokkens W.J. Hellings P.W. Prokopakis E. Pfaar O. Price D. Rhinology future trends: 2017 EUFOREA debate on allergic rhinitis. Rhinology 2019 57 1 49 56 10.4193/Rhin18.076 30052697
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Bousquet J. Khaltaev N. Cruz A.A. Denburg J. Fokkens W.J. Togias A. Zuberbier T. Baena-Cagnani C.E. Canonica G.W. Van Weel C. Agache I. Aït-Khaled N. Bachert C. Blaiss M.S. Bonini S. Boulet L.P. Bousquet P.J. Camargos P. Carlsen K.H. Chen Y. Custovic A. Dahl R. Demoly P. Douagui H. Durham S.R. Van Wijk R.G. Kalayci O. Kaliner M.A. Kim Y.Y. Kowalski M.L. Kuna P. Le L.T.T. Lemiere C. Li J. Lockey R.F. Mavale-Manuel S. Meltzer E.O. Mohammad Y. Mullol J. Naclerio R. O’Hehir R.E. Ohta K. Ouedraogo S. Palkonen S. Papadopoulos N. Passalacqua G. Pawankar R. Popov T.A. Rabe K.F. Rosado-Pinto J. Scadding G.K. Simons F.E.R. Toskala E. Valovirta E. Van Cauwenberge P. Wang D.Y. Wickman M. Yawn B.P. Yorgancioglu A. Yusuf O.M. Zar H. Annesi-Maesano I. Bateman E.D. Kheder A.B. Boakye D.A. Bouchard J. Burney P. Busse W.W. Chan-Yeung M. Chavannes N.H. Chuchalin A. Dolen W.K. Emuzyte R. Grouse L. Humbert M. Jackson C. Johnston S.L. Keith P.K. Kemp J.P. Klossek J.M. Larenas-Linnemann D. Lipworth B. Malo J.L. Marshall G.D. Naspitz C. Nekam K. Niggemann B. Nizankowska-Mogilnicka E. Okamoto Y. Orru M.P. Potter P. Price D. Stoloff S.W. Vandenplas O. Viegi G. Williams D. Allergic rhinitis and its impact on asthma (ARIA) 2008. Allergy 2008 63 s86 8 160 10.1111/j.1398‑9995.2007.01620.x 18331513
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Papadopoulos N.G. Bernstein J.A. Demoly P. Dykewicz M. Fokkens W. Hellings P.W. Peters A.T. Rondon C. Togias A. Cox L.S. Phenotypes and endotypes of rhinitis and their impact on management: A PRACTALL report. Allergy 2015 70 5 474 494 10.1111/all.12573 25620381
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Papadopoulos N.G. Guibas G.V. Rhinitis subtypes, endotypes, and definitions. Immunol Allergy Clin 2016 36 2 215 233 10.1016/j.iac.2015.12.001 27083098
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Sin B. Togias A. Pathophysiology of allergic and nonallergic rhinitis. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2011 8 1 106 114 10.1513/pats.201008‑057RN 21364228
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Gao R. Wang T. Chen Y. Huang S. Li R. Li W. Clinical application of a novel quantum dot immunofluorescence method for rapid detection of IgE in nasal secretions in the diagnosis of allergic rhinitis. Lin Chuang Er Bi Yan Hou Tou Jing Wai Ke Za Zhi 2025 39 6 542 547 10.13201/j.issn.2096‑7993.2025.06.008 40443377
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Campo P. Eguiluz-Gracia I. Bogas G. Salas M. Plaza Serón C. Pérez N. Mayorga C. Torres M.J. Shamji M.H. Rondon C. Local allergic rhinitis: Implications for management. Clin Exp Allergy 2019 49 1 6 16 10.1111/cea.13192 29900607
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Vardouniotis A. Doulaptsi M. Aoi N. Karatzanis A. Kawauchi H. Prokopakis E. Local allergic rhinitis revisited. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2020 20 7 22 10.1007/s11882‑020‑00925‑5 32430616
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Seed MJ Gittins M De Vocht F Agius RM Occupational rhinitis and occupational asthma; One airway two diseases?. J Phys Conf Ser 2009 151 1 012065 10.1088/1742‑6596/151/1/012065
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Stevens W.W. Grammer L.C. Occupational rhinitis: An update. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2015 15 1 487 10.1007/s11882‑014‑0487‑8 25430949
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Moscato G. Siracusa A. Rhinitis guidelines and implications for occupational rhinitis. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2009 9 2 110 115 10.1097/ACI.0b013e328328cfe7 19326505
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Vandenplas O. Hox V. Bernstein D. Occupational Rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2020 8 10 3311 3321 10.1016/j.jaip.2020.06.047 32653647
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Ramey J.T. Bailen E. Lockey R.F. Rhinitis medicamentosa. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2006 16 3 148 155 16784007
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Sanak M. Szczeklik A. Genetics of aspirin induced asthma. Thorax 2000 55 90002 45S 47 10.1136/thorax.55.suppl_2.S45 10992557
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Chalastras T. Nicolopoulou-Stamati P. Patsouris E. Eleftheriadou A. Kandiloros D. Yiotakis I. Gonidi M. Athanassiadou P. Expression of substance P, vasoactive intestinal peptide and heat shock protein 70 in nasal mucosal smears of patients with allergic rhinitis: Investigation using a liquid-based method. J Laryngol Otol 2008 122 7 700 706 10.1017/S0022215107001454 18282334
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Varghese M. Glaum M.C. Lockey R.F. Drug‐induced rhinitis. Clin Exp Allergy 2010 40 3 381 384 10.1111/j.1365‑2222.2009.03450.x 20210811
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Settipane R.A. Lieberman P. Update on nonallergic rhinitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2001 86 5 494 508 10.1016/S1081‑1206(10)62896‑7 11379801
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Settipane R.A. Epidemiology of vasomotor rhinitis. World Allergy Organ J 2009 2 6 115 118 10.1097/WOX.0b013e3181ac91ae 24229078
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Yan C.H. Hwang P.H. Surgical management of nonallergic rhinitis. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2018 51 5 945 955 10.1016/j.otc.2018.05.010 29937065
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Van Cauwenberge P Wang D Ingels KJ Bachert C Rhinitis: The spectrum of disease. Asthma and Rhinitis 1999
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Indirani B. Raman R. Omar S.Z. Hormonal changes causing rhinitis in pregnancy among Malaysian women. J Laryngol Otol 2013 127 9 876 881 10.1017/S0022215113001692 23954035
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Bachert C. Persistent rhinitis – allergic or nonallergic? Allergy 2004 59 s76 11 15 10.1111/j.0108‑1675.2004.00389.x 14984551
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Fokkens WJ Hellings PW Nasal polyposis and asthma: The otorhinolaryngologist's view. The nose and sinuses in respiratory disorders (ERS Monograph) Sheffield European Respiratory Society 2017 87 104 10.1183/2312508X.10010016
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Liva G. Karatzanis A. Prokopakis E. Review of rhinitis: Classification, types, pathophysiology. J Clin Med 2021 10 14 3183 10.3390/jcm10143183 34300349
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Okano M. Fujieda S. Gotoh M. Kurono Y. Matsubara A. Ohta N. Kamijo A. Yamada T. Nakamaru Y. Asako M. Sakurai D. Terada T. Yonekura S. Sakashita M. Okubo K. Executive summary: Japanese guidelines for allergic rhinitis 2020. Allergol Int 2023 72 1 41 53 10.1016/j.alit.2022.11.003 36509676
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Sani M.M. Ashari N.S.M. Abdullah B. Wong K.K. Musa K.I. Mohamud R. Tan H.T. Reduced CD4+ terminally differentiated effector memory T cells in moderate-severe house dust mites sensitized allergic rhinitis patients. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol 2019 37 3 138 146 10.12932/AP‑191217‑0220 29981564
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Plewako H. Holmberg K. Oancea I. Gotlib T. Samoliński B. Rak S. A follow‐up study of immunotherapy‐treated birch‐allergic patients: Effect on the expression of chemokines in the nasal mucosa. Clin Exp Allergy 2008 38 7 1124 1131 10.1111/j.1365‑2222.2008.03005.x 18691293
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Pal I. Babu A.S. Halder I. Kumar S. Nasal smear eosinophils and allergic rhinitis. Ear Nose Throat J 2017 96 10-11 E17 E22 10.1177/0145561317096010‑1105 29121381
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Yang J. Zhong W. Xue K. Wang Z. Epigenetic changes: An emerging potential pharmacological target in allergic rhinitis. Int Immunopharmacol 2019 71 76 83 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.03.004 30878818
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Bunnag C. Jareoncharsri P. Tantilipikorn P. Vichyanond P. Pawankar R. Epidemiology and current status of allergic rhinitis and asthma in Thailand -- ARIA Asia-Pacific Workshop report. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol 2009 27 1 79 86 19548633
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hosseini S. Shoormasti R.S. Akramian R. Movahedi M. Gharagozlou M. Foroughi N. Saboury B. Kazemnejad A. Mahlooji Rad M. Mahdaviani A. Pourpak Z. Moin M. Skin prick test reactivity to common aero and food allergens among children with allergy. Iran J Med Sci 2014 39 1 29 35 24453391
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Reithofer M. Jahn-Schmid B. Allergens with protease activity from house dust mites. Int J Mol Sci 2017 18 7 1368 10.3390/ijms18071368 28653989
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Togias A. Unique mechanistic features of allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000 105 6 S599 S604 10.1067/mai.2000.106885 10856164
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Gerth van Wijk R.G. de Graaf-in ’t Veld C. Garrelds I.M. Nasal hyperreactivity. Rhinology 1999 37 2 50 55 10416248
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Kubo M. T follicular helper and T H 2 cells in allergic responses. Allergol Int 2017 66 3 377 381 10.1016/j.alit.2017.04.006 28499720
    [Google Scholar]
  58. London N.R. Tharakan A. Ramanathan M. The role of innate immunity and aeroallergens in chronic rhinosinusitis. Adv Otorhinolaryngol 2016 79 69 77 10.1159/000445132 27466848
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Nur Husna S.M. Md Shukri N. Tuan Sharif S.E. Tan H.T.T. Mohd Ashari N.S. Wong K.K. IL-4/IL-13 axis in allergic rhinitis: Elevated serum cytokines levels and inverse association with tight junction molecules expression. Front Mol Biosci 2022 9 819772 10.3389/fmolb.2022.819772 35372516
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Wang D.Y. Risk factors of allergic rhinitis: Genetic or environmental? Ther Clin Risk Manag 2005 1 2 115 123 10.2147/tcrm.1.2.115.62907 18360551
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Johansson S.G. Bieber T. Dahl R. Friedmann P.S. Lanier B.Q. Lockey R.F. Motala C. Ortega Martell J.A. Platts-Mills T.A. Ring J. Thien F. Van Cauwenberge P. Williams H.C. Revised nomenclature for allergy for global use: Report of the Nomenclature Review Committee of the World Allergy Organization, October 2003. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004 113 5 832 836 10.1016/j.jaci.2003.12.591 15131563
    [Google Scholar]
  62. North M.L. Jones M.J. MacIsaac J.L. Morin A.M. Steacy L.M. Gregor A. Kobor M.S. Ellis A.K. Blood and nasal epigenetics correlate with allergic rhinitis symptom development in the environmental exposure unit. Allergy 2018 73 1 196 205 10.1111/all.13263 28755526
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Park K.H. Sim D.W. Lee S.C. Moon S. Choe E. Shin H. Kim S.R. Lee J.H. Park H.H. Huh D. Park J.W. Effects of air purifiers on patients with allergic rhinitis: A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled study. Yonsei Med J 2020 61 8 689 697 10.3349/ymj.2020.61.8.689 32734732
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Brunekreef B. Von Mutius E. Wong G.K. Odhiambo J.A. Clayton T.O. Early life exposure to farm animals and symptoms of asthma, rhinoconjunctivitis and eczema: An ISAAC Phase Three Study. Int J Epidemiol 2012 41 3 753 761 10.1093/ije/dyr216 22287135
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Hwang B.F. Jaakkola J.J.K. Lee Y.L. Lin Y.C. Leon Guo Y. Relation between air pollution and allergic rhinitis in Taiwanese schoolchildren. Respir Res 2006 7 1 23 10.1186/1465‑9921‑7‑23 16469096
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Jung D.Y. Leem J.H. Kim H.C. Kim J.H. Hwang S.S. Lee J.Y. Kim B.J. Hong Y.C. Hong S.J. Kwon H.J. Effect of traffic-related air pollution on allergic disease: Results of the children’s health and environmental research. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res 2015 7 4 359 366 10.4168/aair.2015.7.4.359 25936911
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Riedl M. Diaz-Sanchez D. Biology of diesel exhaust effects on respiratory function. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005 115 2 221 228 10.1016/j.jaci.2004.11.047 15696072
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Bousquet J. van Cauwenberge P. Khaltaev N. Allergic rhinitis and its impact on asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001 108 5 S147 S334 10.1067/mai.2001.118891 11707753
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Xu H. Zhang Y. Gu M. Shan Y. Zhang Q. A prospective study on the difference of clinical outcomes between elderly and adult patients with allergic rhinitis. Am J Otolaryngol 2022 43 4 103509 10.1016/j.amjoto.2022.103509 35636087
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Dahalan N.H. Tuan Din S.A. Mohamad S.M.B. Association of ABO blood groups with allergic diseases: A scoping review. BMJ Open 2020 10 2 e029559 10.1136/bmjopen‑2019‑029559 32051294
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Uwaezuoke S.N. Eze J.N. Ayuk A.C. Ndu I.K. ABO histo-blood group and risk of respiratory atopy in children: A review of published evidence. Pediatric Health Med Ther 2018 9 73 79 10.2147/PHMT.S162570 30102298
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Grillo C. La Mantia I. Grillo C.M. Ciprandi G. Ragusa M. Andaloro C. Influence of cigarette smoking on allergic rhinitis: A comparative study on smokers and non-smokers. Acta Biomed 2019 90 7-S 45 51 10.23750/abm.v90i7‑S.8658 31292427
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Nakao A. Clockwork allergy: How the circadian clock underpins allergic reactions. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2018 142 4 1021 1031 10.1016/j.jaci.2018.08.007 30293559
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Holgate S.T. Polosa R. The mechanisms, diagnosis, and management of severe asthma in adults. Lancet 2006 368 9537 780 793 10.1016/S0140‑6736(06)69288‑X 16935689
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Min Y.G. The pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of allergic rhinitis. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res 2010 2 2 65 76 10.4168/aair.2010.2.2.65 20358020
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Singhvi P. Baisakhiya N. Singh G. Study the role of nasal scrap cytology in allergic rhinitis patients in rural population. Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2019 71 S3 2057 2064 10.1007/s12070‑018‑1468‑3 31763294
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Semik-Orzech A Gasior G Barczyk A Pierzchała W Nasal provocation tests in the diagnosis of allergic rhinitis. Wiad Lek 2006 59 5-6 396 402
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Kanjanawasee D. Wattanaphichet A. Tantilipikorn P. Tantikun B. Nasal allergen provocation test: Updated indications and diagnostic accuracy. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2025 25 3 157 168 10.1097/ACI.0000000000001066 40048355
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Bignardi D. Comite P. Mori I. Ferrero F. Fontana V. Bruzzone M. Mussap M. Ciprandi G. Allergen-specific IgE: Comparison between skin prick test and serum assay in real life. Allergol Select 2019 3 1 9 14 10.5414/ALX01891E 32176225
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Testera-Montes A. Jurado R. Salas M. Eguiluz-Gracia I. Mayorga C. Diagnostic tools in allergic rhinitis. Front Allergy 2021 2 721851 10.3389/falgy.2021.721851 35386974
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Sandbhor A. Jain S. Pathophysiology of allergic rhinitis with future therapeutic targets- An update. J Clin Diagn Res 2023 17 6 ME01 ME05 10.7860/JCDR/2023/61119.18042
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Dykewicz M.S. Wallace D.V. Baroody F. Bernstein J. Craig T. Finegold I. Huang F. Larenas-Linnemann D. Meltzer E. Steven G. Bernstein D.I. Blessing-Moore J. Dinakar C. Greenhawt M. Horner C.C. Khan D.A. Lang D. Oppenheimer J. Portnoy J.M. Randolph C.R. Rank M.A. Dykewicz M.S. Wallace D.V. Treatment of seasonal allergic rhinitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2017 119 6 489 511.e41 10.1016/j.anai.2017.08.012 29103802
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Agnihotri NT McGrath KG Allergic and nonallergic rhinitis. Allergy Asthma Proc 2019 40 6 376 379 10.2500/aap.2019.40.4251 31690374
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Kim H. Kaplan A. Treatment and management of allergic rhinitis. Clin Focus 2008 1 1 4
    [Google Scholar]
  85. De Blic J. Wahn U. Billard E. Alt R. Pujazon M.C. Levocetirizine in children: Evidenced efficacy and safety in a 6‐week randomized seasonal allergic rhinitis trial. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2005 16 3 267 275 10.1111/j.1399‑3038.2005.00216.x 15853959
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Rodrigo G.J. Neffen H. Efficacy of fluticasone furoate nasal spray vs. placebo for the treatment of ocular and nasal symptoms of allergic rhinitis: A systematic review. Clin Exp Allergy 2011 41 2 160 170 10.1111/j.1365‑2222.2010.03654.x 21121980
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Wallace D.V. Dykewicz M.S. Seasonal Allergic Rhinitis: A focused systematic review and practice parameter update. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2017 17 4 286 294 10.1097/ACI.0000000000000375 28658067
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Bhatia S. Baroody F.M. deTineo M. Naclerio R.M. Increased nasal airflow with budesonide compared with desloratadine during the allergy season. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2005 131 3 223 228 10.1001/archotol.131.3.223 15781762
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Carr W. Bernstein J. Lieberman P. Meltzer E. Bachert C. Price D. Munzel U. Bousquet J. A novel intranasal therapy of azelastine with fluticasone for the treatment of allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2012 129 5 1282 1289.e10 10.1016/j.jaci.2012.01.077 22418065
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Di Lorenzo G. Pacor M.L. Pellitteri M.E. Morici G. Di Gregoli A. Lo Bianco C. Ditta V. Martinelli N. Candore G. Mansueto P. Rini G.B. Corrocher R. Caruso C. Randomized placebo‐controlled trial comparing fluticasone aqueous nasal spray in mono‐therapy, fluticasone plus cetirizine, fluticasone plus montelukast and cetirizine plus montelukast for seasonal allergic rhinitis. Clin Exp Allergy 2004 34 2 259 267 10.1111/j.1365‑2222.2004.01877.x 14987306
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Small P. Keith P.K. Kim H. Allergic rhinitis. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol 2018 14 S2 51 10.1186/s13223‑018‑0280‑7 30263033
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Satyaraj E Wedner HJ Bousquet J Keep the cat, change the care pathway: a transformational approach to managing Fel d 1, the major cat allergen. Allergy 2019 74 Suppl 107 5 17 10.1111/all.14013 31498459
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Walker S.M. Durham S.R. Till S.J. Roberts G. Corrigan C.J. Leech S.C. Krishna M.T. Rajakulasingham R.K. Williams A. Chantrell J. Dixon L. Frew A.J. Nasser S.M. Immunotherapy for allergic rhinitis. Clin Exp Allergy 2011 41 9 1177 1200 10.1111/j.1365‑2222.2011.03794.x 21848757
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Cohen S.G. Evans R. Allergen immunotherapy in historical perspective. Clin Allergy Immunol 2004 18 1 36 15042906
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Eng P.A. Borer-Reinhold M. Heijnen I.A.F.M. Gnehm H.P.E. Twelve‐year follow‐up after discontinuation of preseasonal grass pollen immunotherapy in childhood. Allergy 2006 61 2 198 201 10.1111/j.1398‑9995.2006.01011.x 16409196
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Fijan S. Microorganisms with claimed probiotic properties: An overview of recent literature. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2014 11 5 4745 4767 10.3390/ijerph110504745 24859749
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Noval Rivas M. Chatila T.A. Regulatory T cells in allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2016 138 3 639 652 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.06.003 27596705
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Busse W.W. Maspero J.F. Lu Y. Corren J. Hanania N.A. Chipps B.E. Katelaris C.H. FitzGerald J.M. Quirce S. Ford L.B. Rice M.S. Kamat S. Khan A.H. Jagerschmidt A. Harel S. Rowe P. Pirozzi G. Amin N. Ruddy M. Graham N.M.H. Teper A. Efficacy of dupilumab on clinical outcomes in patients with asthma and perennial allergic rhinitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2020 125 5 565 576.e1 10.1016/j.anai.2020.05.026 32474156
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Castro M. Corren J. Pavord I.D. Maspero J. Wenzel S. Rabe K.F. Busse W.W. Ford L. Sher L. FitzGerald J.M. Katelaris C. Tohda Y. Zhang B. Staudinger H. Pirozzi G. Amin N. Ruddy M. Akinlade B. Khan A. Chao J. Martincova R. Graham N.M.H. Hamilton J.D. Swanson B.N. Stahl N. Yancopoulos G.D. Teper A. Dupilumab efficacy and safety in moderate-to-severe uncontrolled asthma. N Engl J Med 2018 378 26 2486 2496 10.1056/NEJMoa1804092 29782217
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Tulaeva I. Kratzer B. Campana R. Curin M. van Hage M. Karsonova A. Riabova K. Karaulov A. Khaitov M. Pickl W.F. Valenta R. Preventive allergen-specific vaccination against allergy: Mission possible? Front Immunol 2020 11 1368 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01368 32733455
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Toumi M. Rémuzat C. Value added medicines: What value repurposed medicines might bring to society? J Mark Access Health Policy 2017 5 1 1264717 10.1080/20016689.2017.1264717 28265347
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Rabe K.F. Nair P. Brusselle G. Maspero J.F. Castro M. Sher L. Zhu H. Hamilton J.D. Swanson B.N. Khan A. Chao J. Staudinger H. Pirozzi G. Antoni C. Amin N. Ruddy M. Akinlade B. Graham N.M.H. Stahl N. Yancopoulos G.D. Teper A. Efficacy and safety of dupilumab in glucocorticoid-dependent severe asthma. N Engl J Med 2018 378 26 2475 2485 10.1056/NEJMoa1804093 29782224
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/raiad/10.2174/0127722708397912251001102439
Loading
The Spectrum of Allergic Rhinitis: Risk Factors and their Clinical Relevance
Bentham Science Publishers ; https://doi.org/10.2174/0127722708397912251001102439
/content/journals/raiad/10.2174/0127722708397912251001102439
/content/journals/raiad/10.2174/0127722708397912251001102439
Loading

Data & Media loading...


  • Article Type:     Review Article
Keywords: IgE-mediated response ; Allergic rhinitis ; upper airways ; chronic inflammation ; environmental allergens

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test