Skip to content
2000
image of Therapeutic Potential of Stem Cells in the Treatment and Management of Immunomodulatory Disorders

Abstract

Introduction

Immunomodulatory disorders, such as autoimmune diseases, inflammatory conditions, and viral infections, stem from immune system dysregulation and often resist conventional therapies. Stem cells, particularly mesenchymal (MSCs) and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), possess immunomodulatory and regenerative properties, offering a promising therapeutic alternative.

Methodology

A systematic literature review was conducted using databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, for studies published between 1996 and 2025. A total of 287 articles were screened, and 132 were selected based on relevance, quality, and focus on stem cell biology, immunoregulatory mechanisms, and therapeutic applications.

Results

Stem cells demonstrated significant capacity to regulate immune responses, suppress the production of inflammatory cytokines, enhance regulatory T-cell populations, and promote tissue regeneration. HSCs are effectively used in hematologic malignancies and immune reconstitution, while MSCs show promise in treating conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus, and influenza-induced lung injury. Emerging evidence also supports the role of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in targeted cancer therapies.

Discussion

Stem cells offer a mechanism-driven approach to restoring immune balance and repairing tissue damage. However, variability in clinical outcomes, ethical concerns, and safety risks, such as tumorigenesis, limit their translation into clinical practice. Advances in cell derivation, immunomodulatory profiling, and delivery systems are critical to optimizing outcomes.

Conclusion

Stem cell-based therapies represent a paradigm shift in the treatment of immunomodulatory disorders by addressing the root cause of immune dysfunction. Continued research, ethical oversight, and clinical validation are crucial for transitioning stem cell therapy into routine medical practice.

© 2026 Bentham Science Publishers
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/cpd/10.2174/0113816128434534251030092955
2026-02-13
2026-02-25

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/cpd/10.2174/0113816128434534251030092955
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Shah A.A. Khan F.A. Types and classification of stem cells. Advances in application of stem cells: From Bench to Clinics. Springer 2021 25 49 10.1007/978‑3‑030‑78101‑9_2
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Bryant P.J. Schwartz P.H. Stem cells. Fundamentals of the stem cell debate. Berkeley University of California Press 2008 10 36 10.1525/9780520940994‑002
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Xiong Y. Mi B.B. Lin Z. The role of the immune microenvironment in bone, cartilage, and soft tissue regeneration: From mechanism to therapeutic opportunity. Mil. Med. Res. 2022 9 1 65 10.1186/s40779‑022‑00426‑8 36401295
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Sobhani A. Khanlarkhani N. Baazm M. Multipotent stem cell and current application. Acta Med. Iran. 2017 55 1 6 23 [PMID: 28188938
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Rohban R. Pieber T.R. Mesenchymal stem and progenitor cells in regeneration: Tissue specificity and regenerative potential. Stem Cells Int. 2017 2017 1 1 16 10.1155/2017/5173732 28286525
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Aurora A.B. Olson E.N. Immune modulation of stem cells and regeneration. Cell Stem Cell 2014 15 1 14 25 10.1016/j.stem.2014.06.009 24996166
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Dar E. Abbas M. Nazir S. Abbas M. Novel management, cure and complications-control of rheumatoid arthritis with traditional and modern remedies (A Review). Pharm. Chem. J. 2024 58 7 1020 1028 10.1007/s11094‑024‑03238‑3
    [Google Scholar]
  8. King K.Y. Goodell M.A. Inflammatory modulation of HSCs: Viewing the HSC as a foundation for the immune response. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2011 11 10 685 692 10.1038/nri3062 21904387
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Ghazimoradi M.H. Khalafizadeh A. Babashah S. A critical review on induced totipotent stem cells: Types and methods. Stem Cell Res. 2022 63 102857 10.1016/j.scr.2022.102857 35872523
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Thowfeequ S Srinivas S Embryonic and extraembryonic tissues during mammalian development: Shifting boundaries in time and space. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022 377 1865 20210255 10.1098/rstb.2021.0255 36252217
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Poliwoda S. Noor N. Downs E. Stem cells: A comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice. Orthop. Rev. 2022 14 3 37498 10.52965/001c.37498 36034728
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Pretemer Y. Gao Y. Kanai K. An iPSC-based in vitro model recapitulates human thymic epithelial development and multi-lineage specification. Nat. Commun. 2025 16 1 7680 10.1038/s41467‑025‑62523‑1 40855082
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Yamanaka S. Pluripotent stem cell-based cell therapy—promise and challenges. Cell Stem Cell 2020 27 4 523 531 10.1016/j.stem.2020.09.014 33007237
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Wang J. Tao X. Zhu J. Tumor organoid-immune co-culture models: Exploring a new perspective of tumor immunity. Cell Death Discov. 2025 11 1 195 10.1038/s41420‑025‑02407‑x 40268893
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Khanlarkhani N. Baazm M. Mohammadzadeh F. Najafi A. Mehdinejadiani S. Sobhani A. Multipotent stem cell and reproduction. J. Stem Cells 2016 11 4 219 229 [PMID: 28296874
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Mirzaei H. Sahebkar A. Sichani L.S. Therapeutic application of multipotent stem cells. J. Cell. Physiol. 2018 233 4 2815 2823 10.1002/jcp.25990 28475219
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Murrell W. Féron F. Wetzig A. Multipotent stem cells from adult olfactory mucosa. Dev. Dyn. 2005 233 2 496 515 10.1002/dvdy.20360 15782416
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Kolios G. Moodley Y. Introduction to stem cells and regenerative medicine. Respiration 2013 85 1 3 10 10.1159/000345615 23257690
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Ilic D. Polak J.M. Stem cells in regenerative medicine: Introduction. Br. Med. Bull. 2011 98 1 117 126 10.1093/bmb/ldr012 21565803
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Zweigerdt R. Large scale production of stem cells and their derivatives. Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 2009 114 201 235 10.1007/10_2008_27 19513633
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Abou-Saleh H. Zouein F.A. El-Yazbi A. The march of pluripotent stem cells in cardiovascular regenerative medicine. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2018 9 1 201 10.1186/s13287‑018‑0947‑5 30053890
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Cheng C.C. Hsu L.F. Chung H.H. IPSC‐derived conditioned medium reduces oxidative stress and vascular remodeling in rat models of pulmonary arterial hypertension. J. Cell. Physiol. 2025 240 8 70085 10.1002/jcp.70085 40819237
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Gauster M. Moser G. Wernitznig S. Kupper N. Huppertz B. Early human trophoblast development: From morphology to function. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2022 79 6 345 10.1007/s00018‑022‑04377‑0 35661923
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Pauklin S. Vallier L. The cell-cycle state of stem cells determines cell fate propensity. Cell 2013 155 1 135 147 10.1016/j.cell.2013.08.031 24074866
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Avorn J. Learning about the safety of drugs--a half-century of evolution. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011 365 23 2151 2153 10.1056/NEJMp1110327 22150034
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Asherson R.A. Gunter K. Daya D. Shoenfeld Y. Multiple autoimmune diseases in a young woman: Tuberculosis and splenectomy as possible triggering factors? Another example of the “mosaic” of autoimmunity. J. Rheumatol. 2008 35 6 1224 1226 [PMID: 18528954
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Lee S.J. Chinen J. Kavanaugh A. Immunomodulator therapy: Monoclonal antibodies, fusion proteins, cytokines, and immunoglobulins. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2010 125 2 Suppl. 2 S314 S323 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.018 20036416
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Barreto J.N. McCullough K.B. Ice L.L. Smith J.A. Antineoplastic agents and the associated myelosuppressive effects: A review. J. Pharm. Pract. 2014 27 5 440 446 10.1177/0897190014546108 25147158
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Huang R.L. Li Q. Ma J.X. Atala A. Zhang Y. Body fluid-derived stem cells — An untapped stem cell source in genitourinary regeneration. Nat. Rev. Urol. 2023 20 12 739 761 10.1038/s41585‑023‑00787‑2 37414959
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Weiss L. Or R. Slavin S. Naparstek E. Reich S. Abdul-Hai A. Immunotherapy of murine leukemia following non-myeloablative conditioning with naïve or G-CSF mobilized blood or bone marrow stem cells. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 2004 53 4 358 362 10.1007/s00262‑003‑0440‑5 14605765
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Couban S. Simpson D.R. Barnett M.J. A randomized multicenter comparison of bone marrow and peripheral blood in recipients of matched sibling allogeneic transplants for myeloid malignancies. Blood 2002 100 5 1525 1531 10.1182/blood‑2002‑01‑0048 12176866
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Hernández Boluda J.C. Carreras E. Cervantes F. Collection of Philadelphia negative stem cells using recombinant human granulocyte colony stimulating factor in chronic myeloid leukemia patients treated with alpha interferon. Haematologica 2002 87 1 17 22 [PMID: 11801461
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Xun X. Hao J. Cheng Q. Gao P. Induced pluripotent stem cell-based cancer immunotherapy: Strategies and perspectives. Biomedicines 2025 13 8 2012 10.3390/biomedicines13082012 40868263
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Martin-Rendon E. Watt S.M. Exploitation of stem cell plasticity. Transfus. Med. 2003 13 6 325 349 10.1111/j.1365‑3148.2003.00462.x 14651740
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Soltysova A. Altanerova V. Altaner C. Cancer stem cells. Neoplasma 2005 52 6 435 440 [PMID: 16284686
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Hamada H. Kobune M. Nakamura K. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) as therapeutic cytoreagents for gene therapy. Cancer Sci. 2005 96 3 149 156 10.1111/j.1349‑7006.2005.00032.x 15771617
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Bixby S. Kruger G.M. Mosher J.T. Joseph N.M. Morrison S.J. Cell-intrinsic differences between stem cells from different regions of the peripheral nervous system regulate the generation of neural diversity. Neuron 2002 35 4 643 656 10.1016/S0896‑6273(02)00825‑5 12194865
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Hope K.J. Jin L. Dick J.E. Human acute myeloid leukemia stem cells. Arch. Med. Res. 2003 34 6 507 514 10.1016/j.arcmed.2003.08.007 14734090
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Dick J.E. Breast cancer stem cells revealed. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003 100 7 3547 3549 10.1073/pnas.0830967100 12657737
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Al-Hajj M. Wicha M.S. Benito-Hernandez A. Morrison S.J. Clarke M.F. Prospective identification of tumorigenic breast cancer cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003 100 7 3983 3988 10.1073/pnas.0530291100 12629218
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Morrison S.J. Qian D. Jerabek L. A genetic determinant that specifically regulates the frequency of hematopoietic stem cells. J. Immunol. 2002 168 2 635 642 10.4049/jimmunol.168.2.635 11777956
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Al-Hajj M. Becker M.W. Wicha M. Weissman I. Clarke M.F. Therapeutic implications of cancer stem cells. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2004 14 1 43 47 10.1016/j.gde.2003.11.007 15108804
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Stockler M. Wilcken N.R.C. Ghersi D. Simes R.J. Systematic reviews of chemotherapy and endocrine therapy in metastatic breast cancer. Cancer Treat. Rev. 2000 26 3 151 168 10.1053/ctrv.1999.0161 10814559
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Jordan C.T. Guzman M.L. Noble M. Cancer stem cells. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006 355 12 1253 1261 10.1056/NEJMra061808 16990388
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Costello R.T. Mallet F. Gaugler B. Human acute myeloid leukemia CD34+/CD38- progenitor cells have decreased sensitivity to chemotherapy and Fas-induced apoptosis, reduced immunogenicity, and impaired dendritic cell transformation capacities. Cancer Res. 2000 60 16 4403 4411 [PMID: 10969785
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Guzman M.L. Swiderski C.F. Howard D.S. Preferential induction of apoptosis for primary human leukemic stem cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2002 99 25 16220 16225 10.1073/pnas.252462599 12451177
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Groszer M. Erickson R. Scripture-Adams D.D. Negative regulation of neural stem/progenitor cell proliferation by the Pten tumor suppressor gene in vivo. Science 2001 294 5549 2186 2189 10.1126/science.1065518 11691952
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Galderisi U. Cipollaro M. Giordano A. Stem cells and brain cancer. Cell Death Differ. 2006 13 1 5 11 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401757 16123777
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Blair A. Hogge D.E. Ailles L.E. Lansdorp P.M. Sutherland H.J. Lack of expression of Thy-1 (CD90) on acute myeloid leukemia cells with long-term proliferative ability in vitro and in vivo. Blood 1997 89 9 3104 3112 10.1182/blood.V89.9.3104 9129012
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Buchdunger E. Capdeville R. Glivec®(Gleevec®, Imatinib, STI571) A targeted therapy for chronic myelogenous leukemia. Protein tyrosine kinases: from inhibitors to useful drugs. Springer 2006 145 160 10.1385/1‑59259‑962‑1:145
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Berman D.M. Karhadkar S.S. Hallahan A.R. Medulloblastoma growth inhibition by hedgehog pathway blockade. Science 2002 297 5586 1559 1561 10.1126/science.1073733 12202832
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Beachy P.A. Karhadkar S.S. Berman D.M. Tissue repair and stem cell renewal in carcinogenesis. Nature 2004 432 7015 324 331 10.1038/nature03100 15549094
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Aletaha D. Smolen J.S. Diagnosis and management of rheumatoid arthritis: A review. JAMA 2018 320 13 1360 1372 10.1001/jama.2018.13103 30285183
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Myasoedova E. Davis J. Matteson E.L. Crowson C.S. Is the epidemiology of rheumatoid arthritis changing? Results from a population-based incidence study, 1985–2014. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2020 79 4 440 444 10.1136/annrheumdis‑2019‑216694 32066556
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Firestein G.S. McInnes I.B. Immunopathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Immunity 2017 46 2 183 196 10.1016/j.immuni.2017.02.006 28228278
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Guo Q. Wang Y. Xu D. Nossent J. Pavlos N.J. Xu J. Rheumatoid arthritis: Pathological mechanisms and modern pharmacologic therapies. Bone Res. 2018 6 1 15 10.1038/s41413‑018‑0016‑9 29736302
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Lin Y.J. Anzaghe M. Schülke S. Update on the pathomechanism, diagnosis, and treatment options for rheumatoid arthritis. Cells 2020 9 4 880 10.3390/cells9040880 32260219
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Singh J.A. Saag K.G. Bridges S.L. 2015 American College of Rheumatology guideline for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2016 68 1 1 26 10.1002/art.39480 26545940
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Chatzidionysiou K. Emamikia S. Nam J. Efficacy of glucocorticoids, conventional and targeted synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: A systematic literature review informing the 2016 update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2017 76 6 1102 1107 10.1136/annrheumdis‑2016‑210711 28356243
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Papadopoli D.J. Ma E.H. Roy D. Methotrexate elicits pro-respiratory and anti-growth effects by promoting AMPK signaling. Sci. Rep. 2020 10 1 7838 10.1038/s41598‑020‑64460‑z 32398698
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Cronstein B.N. Aune T.M. Methotrexate and its mechanisms of action in inflammatory arthritis. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 2020 16 3 145 154 10.1038/s41584‑020‑0373‑9 32066940
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Paul M. Hemshekhar M. Thushara R.M. Methotrexate promotes platelet apoptosis via JNK-mediated mitochondrial damage: Alleviation by N-acetylcysteine and N-acetylcysteine amide. PLoS One 2015 10 6 0127558 10.1371/journal.pone.0127558 26083398
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Brown P.M. Pratt A.G. Isaacs J.D. Mechanism of action of methotrexate in rheumatoid arthritis, and the search for biomarkers. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 2016 12 12 731 742 10.1038/nrrheum.2016.175 27784891
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Tian H. Cronstein B.N. Understanding the mechanisms of action of methotrexate: Implications for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Bull. NYU Hosp. Jt. Dis. 2007 65 3 168 173 [PMID: 17922664
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Van Ede A.E. Laan R.F.J.M. Rood M.J. Effect of folic or folinic acid supplementation on the toxicity and efficacy of methotrexate in rheumatoid arthritis: A forty-eight-week, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arthritis Rheum. 2001 44 7 1515 1524 10.1002/1529‑0131(200107)44:7<1515:AID‑ART273>3.0.CO;2‑7 11465701
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Smolen J.S. Landewé R. Bijlsma J. EULAR recommendations for the management of rheumatoid arthritis with synthetic and biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: 2016 update. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2017 76 6 960 977 10.1136/annrheumdis‑2016‑210715 28264816
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Daien C.I. Hua C. Combe B. Landewe R. Non-pharmacological and pharmacological interventions in patients with early arthritis: A systematic literature review informing the 2016 update of EULAR recommendations for the management of early arthritis. RMD Open 2017 3 1 000404 10.1136/rmdopen‑2016‑000404 28151539
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Combe B. Landewe R. Daien C.I. 2016 update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of early arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2017 76 6 948 959 10.1136/annrheumdis‑2016‑210602 27979873
    [Google Scholar]
  69. van der Heide A. Jacobs J.W.G. Bijlsma J.W.J. The effectiveness of early treatment with “second-line” antirheumatic drugs. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 1996 124 8 699 707 10.7326/0003‑4819‑124‑8‑199604150‑00001 8633829
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Nam J.L. Takase-Minegishi K. Ramiro S. Efficacy of biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: A systematic literature review informing the 2016 update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2017 76 6 1108 1113 10.1136/annrheumdis‑2016‑210713 28283512
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Crofford LJ Use of NSAIDs in treating patients with arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2013 15 Suppl 3 Suppl 3 S2 10.1186/ar4174 24267197
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Marinescu C.I. Preda M.B. Burlacu A. A procedure for in vitro evaluation of the immunosuppressive effect of mouse mesenchymal stem cells on activated T-cell proliferation. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2021 12 1 319 10.1186/s13287‑021‑02344‑3 34090507
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Lanzillotti C. De Mattei M. Mazziotta C. Long non-coding RNAs and microRNAs interplay in osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells. Front. Cell Dev. Biol. 2021 9 646032 10.3389/fcell.2021.646032 33898434
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Ling W. Zhang J. Yuan Z. Mesenchymal stem cells use IDO to regulate immunity in tumor microenvironment. Cancer Res. 2014 74 5 1576 1587 10.1158/0008‑5472.CAN‑13‑1656 24452999
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Preda M.B. Neculachi C.A. Fenyo I.M. Short lifespan of syngeneic transplanted MSC is a consequence of in vivo apoptosis and immune cell recruitment in mice. Cell Death Dis. 2021 12 6 566 10.1038/s41419‑021‑03839‑w 34075029
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Boothby M. Rickert R.C. Metabolic regulation of the immune humoral response. Immunity 2017 46 5 743 755 10.1016/j.immuni.2017.04.009 28514675
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Volkov M. van Schie K.A. van der Woude D. Autoantibodies and B Cells: The ABC of rheumatoid arthritis pathophysiology. Immunol. Rev. 2020 294 1 148 163 10.1111/imr.12829 31845355
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Liu X. Feng T. Gong T. Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells inhibit the function of allogeneic activated Vγ9Vδ2 T lymphocytes in vitro. BioMed Res. Int. 2015 2015 1 1 10 10.1155/2015/317801 25984529
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Martinet L. Fleury-Cappellesso S. Gadelorge M. A regulatory cross‐talk between Vγ9Vδ2 T lymphocytes and mesenchymal stem cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 2009 39 3 752 762 10.1002/eji.200838812 19197941
    [Google Scholar]
  80. El-Jawhari J.J. El-Sherbiny Y.M. Jones E.A. McGonagle D. Mesenchymal stem cells, autoimmunity and rheumatoid arthritis. QJM 2014 107 7 505 514 10.1093/qjmed/hcu033 24518000
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Hwang J.J. Rim Y.A. Nam Y. Ju J.H. Recent developments in clinical applications of mesenchymal stem cells in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Front. Immunol. 2021 12 631291 10.3389/fimmu.2021.631291 33763076
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Mulherin D. Fitzgerald O. Bresnihan B. Synovial tissue macrophage populations and articular damage in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1996 39 1 115 124 10.1002/art.1780390116 8546720
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Udalova I.A. Mantovani A. Feldmann M. Macrophage heterogeneity in the context of rheumatoid arthritis. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 2016 12 8 472 485 10.1038/nrrheum.2016.91 27383913
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Steffen U. Schett G. Bozec A. How autoantibodies regulate osteoclast induced bone loss in rheumatoid arthritis. Front. Immunol. 2019 10 1483 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01483 31333647
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Worbs T. Hammerschmidt S.I. Förster R. Dendritic cell migration in health and disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2017 17 1 30 48 10.1038/nri.2016.116 27890914
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Han Y. Li X. Zhou Q. FTY720 abrogates collagen-induced arthritis by hindering dendritic cell migration to local lymph nodes. J. Immunol. 2015 195 9 4126 4135 10.4049/jimmunol.1401842 26416269
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Liu L. Wong C.W. Han M. Meta-analysis of preclinical studies of mesenchymal stromal cells to treat rheumatoid arthritis. EBioMedicine 2019 47 563 577 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.08.073 31501076
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Lopez-Santalla M. Fernandez-Perez R. Garin M.I. Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells for rheumatoid arthritis treatment: An update on clinical applications. Cells 2020 9 8 1852 10.3390/cells9081852 32784608
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Campbell M.R. Review of current status of molecular diagnosis and characterization of monogenic diabetes mellitus: A focus on next-generation sequencing. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2020 20 4 413 420 10.1080/14737159.2020.1730179 32050823
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Carroll D. St Clair D.K. Hematopoietic stem cells: Normal versus malignant. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 2018 29 16 1612 1632 10.1089/ars.2017.7326 29084438
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Voltarelli J.C. Couri C.E.B. Stracieri A.B.P.L. Autologous nonmyeloablative hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes mellitus. JAMA 2007 297 14 1568 1576 10.1001/jama.297.14.1568 17426276
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Copelan E.A. Hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006 354 17 1813 1826 10.1056/NEJMra052638 16641398
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Matthay M.A. Ware L.B. Zimmerman G.A. The acute respiratory distress syndrome. J. Clin. Invest. 2012 122 8 2731 2740 10.1172/JCI60331 22850883
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Rubenfeld G.D. Caldwell E. Peabody E. Incidence and outcomes of acute lung injury. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005 353 16 1685 1693 10.1056/NEJMoa050333 16236739
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Londino J.D. Lazrak A. Collawn J.F. Bebok Z. Harrod K.S. Matalon S. Influenza virus infection alters ion channel function of airway and alveolar cells: Mechanisms and physiological sequelae. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 2017 313 5 L845 L858 10.1152/ajplung.00244.2017 28775098
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Fouchier R.A.M. Rimmelzwaan G.F. Kuiken T. Osterhaus A.D.M.E. Newer respiratory virus infections: Human metapneumovirus, avian influenza virus, and human coronaviruses. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2005 18 2 141 146 10.1097/01.qco.0000160903.56566.84 15735418
    [Google Scholar]
  97. State of knowledge and data gaps of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in humans. PLoS Curr. 2013 5 5 10.1371/currents.outbreaks.0bf719e352e7478f8ad85fa30127ddb8 24270606
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Baker S.C. Coronaviruses: From common colds to severe acute respiratory syndrome. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2004 23 11 1049 1050 10.1097/01.inf.0000145815.70485.f7 15545861
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Sloots T.P. Whiley D.M. Lambert S.B. Nissen M.D. Emerging respiratory agents: New viruses for old diseases? J. Clin. Virol. 2008 42 3 233 243 10.1016/j.jcv.2008.03.002 18406664
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Han J. Li Y. Li Y. Strategies to enhance mesenchymal stem cell‐based therapies for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Stem Cells Int. 2019 2019 1 1 12 10.1155/2019/5432134 31885615
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Horie S. Masterson C. Devaney J. Laffey J.G. Stem cell therapy for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 2016 22 1 14 20 10.1097/MCC.0000000000000276 26645555
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Randall K. Ewing E.T. Marr L.C. Jimenez J.L. Bourouiba L. How did we get here: What are droplets and aerosols and how far do they go? A historical perspective on the transmission of respiratory infectious diseases. Interface Focus 2021 11 6 20210049 10.1098/rsfs.2021.0049 34956601
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Pleschka S. Overview of influenza viruses. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2013 370 1 20 10.1007/82_2012_272 23124938
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Uyeki T.M. Influenza. Ann. Intern. Med. 2017 167 5 ITC33 ITC48 10.7326/AITC201709050 28869984
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Henritzi D. Hoffmann B. Wacheck S. A newly developed tetraplex real‐time RT‐PCR for simultaneous screening of influenza virus types A, B, C and D. Influenza Other Respir. Viruses 2019 13 1 71 82 10.1111/irv.12613 30264926
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Tong S. Zhu X. Li Y. New world bats harbor diverse influenza A viruses. PLoS Pathog. 2013 9 10 1003657 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003657 24130481
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Jamieson D.J. Honein M.A. Rasmussen S.A. H1N1 2009 influenza virus infection during pregnancy in the USA. Lancet 2009 374 9688 451 458 10.1016/S0140‑6736(09)61304‑0 19643469
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Wu N.H. Yang W. Beineke A. The differentiated airway epithelium infected by influenza viruses maintains the barrier function despite a dramatic loss of ciliated cells. Sci. Rep. 2016 6 1 39668 10.1038/srep39668 28004801
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Rubin E.J. Baden L.R. Morrissey S. Campion E.W. Medical journals and the 2019-nCoV outbreak. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020 382 9 866 6 10.1056/NEJMe2001329
    [Google Scholar]
  110. de Wit E. van Doremalen N. Falzarano D. Munster V.J. SARS and MERS: Recent insights into emerging coronaviruses. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2016 14 8 523 534 10.1038/nrmicro.2016.81 27344959
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Bautista E. Chotpitayasunondh T. Gao Z. Clinical aspects of pandemic 2009 influenza A (H1N1) virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010 362 18 1708 1719 10.1056/NEJMra1000449 20445182
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Short K.R. Kroeze E.J.B.V. Fouchier R.A.M. Kuiken T. Pathogenesis of influenza-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2014 14 1 57 69 10.1016/S1473‑3099(13)70286‑X 24239327
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Herold S. Becker C. Ridge K.M. Budinger G.R.S. Influenza virus-induced lung injury: Pathogenesis and implications for treatment. Eur. Respir. J. 2015 45 5 1463 1478 10.1183/09031936.00186214 25792631
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Shi C. Pamer E.G. Monocyte recruitment during infection and inflammation. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2011 11 11 762 774 10.1038/nri3070 21984070
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Malmgaard L. Melchjorsen J. Bowie A.G. Mogensen S.C. Paludan S.R. Viral activation of macrophages through TLR-dependent and -independent pathways. J. Immunol. 2004 173 11 6890 6898 10.4049/jimmunol.173.11.6890 15557184
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Hashimoto Y. Moki T. Takizawa T. Shiratsuchi A. Nakanishi Y. Evidence for phagocytosis of influenza virus-infected, apoptotic cells by neutrophils and macrophages in mice. J. Immunol. 2007 178 4 2448 2457 10.4049/jimmunol.178.4.2448 17277152
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Channappanavar R. Fehr A.R. Vijay R. Dysregulated type I interferon and inflammatory monocyte-macrophage responses cause lethal pneumonia in SARS-CoV-infected mice. Cell Host Microbe 2016 19 2 181 193 10.1016/j.chom.2016.01.007 26867177
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Shi Y. Su J. Roberts A.I. Shou P. Rabson A.B. Ren G. How mesenchymal stem cells interact with tissue immune responses. Trends Immunol. 2012 33 3 136 143 10.1016/j.it.2011.11.004 22227317
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Zhang Z. Zhang Y. Gao F. CRISPR/Cas9 genome-editing system in human stem cells: Current status and future prospects. Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids 2017 9 230 241 10.1016/j.omtn.2017.09.009 29246302
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Lotfi M. Morshedi Rad D. Mashhadi S.S. Recent advances in CRISPR/Cas9 delivery approaches for therapeutic gene editing of stem cells. Stem Cell Rev. Rep. 2023 19 8 2576 2596 10.1007/s12015‑023‑10585‑3 37723364
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Liang Z. Xie H. Wu D. Immune mediated inflammatory diseases: Moving from targeted biologic therapy, stem cell therapy to targeted cell therapy. Front. Immunol. 2025 16 1520063 10.3389/fimmu.2025.1520063 40260258
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Hotta A. Schrepfer S. Nagy A. Genetically engineered hypoimmunogenic cell therapy. Nat Rev Bioeng 2024 2 11 960 979 10.1038/s44222‑024‑00219‑9
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Zhu F Nie G Liu C Engineered biomaterials in stem cell-based regenerative medicine. Life Med 2023 2 4 Inda027 10.1093/lifemedi/lnad027 39872549
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Gao Y. Tang Z. Wu Z. Biomaterials and stem cells targeting the microenvironment for traumatic brain injury repair: Progress and prospects. Biomater. Sci. 2025 10.1039/D4BM01521E 40859730
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Maisani M. Pezzoli D. Chassande O. Mantovani D. Cellularizing hydrogel-based scaffolds to repair bone tissue: How to create a physiologically relevant micro-environment? J. Tissue Eng. 2017 8 2041731417712073 10.1177/2041731417712073 28634532
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Xue L. Thatte A.S. Mai D. Responsive biomaterials: Optimizing control of cancer immunotherapy. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2023 9 2 100 118 10.1038/s41578‑023‑00617‑2
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Jafarinia M. Alsahebfosoul F. Salehi H. Eskandari N. Ganjalikhani-Hakemi M. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles: A novel cell-free therapy. Immunol. Invest. 2020 49 7 758 780 10.1080/08820139.2020.1712416 32009478
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Ma Z.J. Yang J.J. Lu Y.B. Liu Z.Y. Wang X.X. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes: Toward cell-free therapeutic strategies in regenerative medicine. World J. Stem Cells 2020 12 8 814 840 10.4252/wjsc.v12.i8.814 32952861
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Zhang M. Zang X. Wang M. Exosome-based nanocarriers as bio-inspired and versatile vehicles for drug delivery: Recent advances and challenges. J. Mater. Chem. B Mater. Biol. Med. 2019 7 15 2421 2433 10.1039/C9TB00170K 32255119
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Zhu X. Ma D. Yang B. Research progress of engineered mesenchymal stem cells and their derived exosomes and their application in autoimmune/inflammatory diseases. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2023 14 1 71 10.1186/s13287‑023‑03295‑7 37038221
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Cao J. Lv G. Wei F. Engineering exosomes to reshape the immune microenvironment in breast cancer: Molecular insights and therapeutic opportunities. Clin. Transl. Med. 2024 14 4 1645 10.1002/ctm2.1645 38572668
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Zhang M. Hu S. Liu L. Engineered exosomes from different sources for cancer-targeted therapy. Signal Transduct. Target. Ther. 2023 8 1 124 10.1038/s41392‑023‑01382‑y 36922504
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/cpd/10.2174/0113816128434534251030092955
Loading
Therapeutic Potential of Stem Cells in the Treatment and Management of Immunomodulatory Disorders
Bentham Science Publishers ; https://doi.org/10.2174/0113816128434534251030092955
/content/journals/cpd/10.2174/0113816128434534251030092955
/content/journals/cpd/10.2174/0113816128434534251030092955
Loading

Data & Media loading...


  • Article Type:     Review Article
Keywords: mesenchymal stem cells ; autoimmune disorders ; immunomodulatory agents ; inflammatory cytokines ; Stem cells ; regenerative medicine

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test