CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets (Formerly Current Drug Targets - CNS & Neurological Disorders) - Volume 14, Issue 9, 2015

Objective: To investigate the effect of 8-week whole body vibration training on gait performance and lower extremity function in stroke patients with knee hyperextension. Methods: Total 30 subjects with stroke were randomized into the control group (n=15) or the intervention group (n=15). The patients of intervention group were treated with whole body vibration while the control group was treated with placebo. The walking function, lower limb function and knee hyperextension times were assessed in this study. Gait performances were evaluated by 10-meter walk test. The knee hyperextension times was visually observed and counted. The lower limb function was evaluated by Fugl-Meyer motor assessment. Results: The times of the knee hyperextension of the intervention group was significantly decreased compared with control groups (P=0.000, d=1.749, 95%CI[2.915,7.285]). The walking function assessed by 10-meter test of intervention group was significantly improved compared with control group (P=0.001, d=1.345, 95%CI[1.896,6.704]). The performances of all the three tests were improved after training in both groups (P=0.000/P=0.000, d=1.500/d=1.952, 95%CI[3.309,9.891]/ 95%CI[5.549,12.45]; P=0.000/P=0.000, d=2.015/d=2.952, 95%CI[5.214,11.39]/95%CI[9.423, 15.98]; P=0.000/P=0.000, d=3.537/d=5.108, 95%CI[19.05,12.35]/95%CI[16.52,22.28]). Conclusion: The results suggest that 8 weeks whole body vibration training can reduce knee hyperextension and increase ambulatory speed in stroke patients.

The pathophysiology of depression is related to neurobiological changes that occur in the monoamine system, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, neurogenesis system and the neuroimmune system. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the research of the effects of exercise on brain function, with a special focus on its effects on brainderived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cortisol and other biomarkers. Thus, the aim of this study is to present a review investigating the acute and chronic effects of aerobic exercise on BDNF and cortisol levels in individuals with depression. It was not possible to establish an interaction between aerobic exercise and concentration of BDNF and cortisol, which may actually be the result of the divergence of methods, such as type of exercises, duration of the sessions, and prescribed intensity and frequency of sessions.

Physical exercise has long been recognized to benefit locomotor and cardiovascular systems. Although an increasing body of evidence also suggests it to be an effective non-medicinal remedy for mental disorders such as depression, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. A recent study has demonstrated that increases of the adipocytesecreted hormone adiponectin in the central nervous system following exercise may be responsible for these neuropsychological changes, including enhanced generation of neurons in the adult hippocampus, as well as mitigation of depressive severity. The present review introduces the previously-reported functions of adult hippocampal neurogenesis and adiponectin, and discusses the potential relevance of adiponectin signaling in exercise-induced neural changes. Revealing these novel biological effects of adiponectin in the brain may help hunt reliable biomarkers to better guide the anti-depressive therapy with exercise intervention; meanwhile, pharmaceutical agents that raise endogenous levels of adiponectin or mimic its biological effects might serve as a replacement for physical exercise.

Mental practice is an internal reproduction of a motor act (whose intention is to promote learning and improving motor skills). Some studies have shown that other cognitive strategies also increase the strength and muscular resistance in healthy people by the enhancement of the performance during dynamic tasks. Mental training sessions may be primordial to improving muscle strength in different subjects. The aim of this study was to systematically review and meta-analiyze studies that assessed whether mental practice is effective in improving muscular strength. We conducted an electronic-computed search in Pub-Med/Medline and ISI Web of Knowledge, Scielo and manual searchs, searching papers written in English between 1991 and 2014. There were 44 studies in Pub-Med/Medline, 631 in ISI Web of Knowledge, 11 in Scielo and 3 in manual searchs databases. After exclusion of studies for duplicate, unrelated to the topic by title and summary, different samples and methodologies, a meta-analysis of 4 studies was carried out to identify the dose-response relationship. We did not find evidence that mental practice is effective in increasing strength in healthy individuals. There is no evidence that mental practice alone can be effective to induce strength gains or to optimize the training effects.

There is a lack of knowledge about the influence of individual physical activities on the quality of life (QoL) of older adults, especially in strength training and swimming, two popular activities. Objectives: to assess and compare the perceived QoL levels among sedentary, swimming and strength training groups in elderly individuals. Methods: Twenty one subjects were evaluated: 9 sedentary, 10 swimming and 12 strength training. Physical activity levels were assessed by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire short version, and the physical, psychological, social and environmental domains, as well the general QoL of each group, were assessed through the World Health Organization questionnaire short version. In addition, the contribution of each domain in general QoL was also verified. Results: The sedentary group presented a statistically lower score in each variable examined (p<0.05). The physical domain was higher only in the strength training group and the psychological and social domains were higher only in the swimming group. In relation to the influence on general QoL, the physical domain (i.e., sedentary); the physical and psychological domains (i.e., swimming) and the social and environmental domains (i.e., strength training) were statistically significant. Conclusion: The results suggest that the QoL levels were always lower in the sedentary group. However, the determination of the domain depended on the physical activity level of each subject. Further, the domains with better scores were not necessarily the ones that showed a higher association with the general QoL in each group.

Chronic Low Back Pain (CLBP) is a public health problem and older women have higher incidence of this symptom, which affect body balance, functional capacity and behavior. The purpose of this study was to verifying the effect of exercises with Nintendo Wii on CLBP, functional capacity and mood of elderly. Thirty older women (68 ± 4 years; 68 ± 12 kg; 154 ± 5 cm) with CLBP participated in this study. Elderly individuals were divided into a Control Exercise Group (n = 14) and an Experimental Wii Group (n = 16). Control Exercise Group did strength exercises and core training, while Experimental Wii Group did ones additionally to exercises with Wii. CLBP, balance, functional capacity and mood were assessed pre and post training by the numeric pain scale, Wii Balance Board, sit to stand test and Profile of Mood States, respectively. Training lasted eight weeks and sessions were performed three times weekly. MANOVA 2 x 2 showed no interaction on pain, siting, stand-up and mood (P = 0.53). However, there was significant difference within groups (P = 0.0001). ANOVA 2 x 2 showed no interaction for each variable (P > 0.05). However, there were significant differences within groups in these variables (P < 0.05). Tukey’s post-hoc test showed significant difference in pain on both groups (P = 0.0001). Wilcoxon and Mann-Whitney tests identified no significant differences on balance (P > 0.01). Capacity to Sit improved only in Experimental Wii Group (P = 0.04). In conclusion, physical exercises with Nintendo Wii Fit Plus additional to strength and core training were effective only for sitting capacity, but effect size was small.

Force plate is considered gold standard tool to assess body balance. However the Wii Balance Board (WBB) platform is a trustworthy equipment to assess stabilometric components in young people. Thus, we aim to examine the reliability of measures of center of pressure with WBB in healthy elderly women. Twenty one healthy and physically active women were enrolled in the study (age: 64 ± 7 years; body mass index: 29 ± 5 kg/m2). The WBB was used to assess the center of pressure measures in the individuals. Pressure was linearly applied to different points to test the platform precision. Three assessments were performed, with two of them being held on the same day at a 5- to 10-minute interval, and the third one was performed 48 h later. A linear regression analysis was used to find out linearity, while the intraclass correlation coefficient was used to assess reliability. The platform precision was adequate (R2 = 0.997, P = 0.01). Center of pressure measures showed an excellent reliability (all intraclass correlation coefficient values were > 0.90; p < 0.01). The WBB is a precise and reliable tool of body stability quantitative measure in healthy active elderly women and its use should be encouraged in clinical settings.

Depression is a common and disabling disease that affects over 100 million people worldwide and can have a significant impact on physical and mental health, reducing their quality of life. Thus, the aim of this article was to provide information on research results and key chains related to the therapeutic effects of chronic aerobic exercise compared with other types of interventions to treat depression, which may become a useful clinical application in a near future. Researches have shown the effectiveness of alternative treatments, such as physical exercise, minimizing high financial costs and minimizing side effects. In this review, the data analyzed allows us to claim that alternative therapies, such as exercise, are effective on controlling and reducing symptoms. 69.3% of the studies that investigated the antidepressant effects of exercise on depressive were significant, and the other 30.7% of the studies improved only in general physiological aspects, such as increased oxygen uptake, increased use of blood glucose and decreased body fat percentage, with no improvement on symptoms of depression. From the sample analyzed, 71.4% was composed of women, and regarding the severity of symptoms, 85% had mild to moderate depression and only 15% had moderate to severe depression. However, there is still disagreement regarding the effect of exercise compared to the use of antidepressants in symptomatology and cognitive function in depression, this suggests that there is no consensus on the correct intensity of aerobic exercise as to achieve the best dose-response, with intensities high to moderate or moderate to mild.

Anxiety disorders are the most common psychiatric disorders observed currently. It is a normal adaptive response to stress that allows coping with adverse situations. Nevertheless, when anxiety becomes excessive or disproportional in relation to the situation that evokes it or when there is not any special object directed at it, such as an irrational dread of routine stimuli, it becomes a disabling disorder and is considered to be pathological. The traditional treatment used is medication and cognitive behavioral psychotherapy, however, last years the practice of physical exercise, specifically aerobic exercise, has been investigated as a new non-pharmacological therapy for anxiety disorders. Thus, the aim of this article was to provide information on research results and key chains related to the therapeutic effects of aerobic exercise compared with other types of interventions to treat anxiety, which may become a useful clinical application in a near future. Researches have shown the effectiveness of alternative treatments, such as physical exercise, minimizing high financial costs and minimizing side effects. The sample analyzed, 66.8% was composed of women and 80% with severity of symptoms anxiety as moderate to severe. The data analyzed in this review allows us to claim that alternative therapies like exercise are effective in controlling and reducing symptoms, as 91% of anxiety disorders surveys have shown effective results in treating. However, there is still disagreement regarding the effect of exercise compared to the use of antidepressant symptoms and cognitive function in anxiety, this suggests that there is no consensus on the correct intensity of aerobic exercise as to achieve the best dose-response, with intensities high to moderate or moderate to mild.

Schools are an ideal setting to implement physical activity programs targeted at youths’ learning and intellectual abilities, as exercise has been associated with improvement in cognitive skills and academic proficiency. A systematic review of the literature was performed to examine the effects of school-based physical activity interventions on academic achievement and cognitive outcomes. A search for relevant papers was carried out on PubMed/Medline, Scopus and Google Scholar. Only quasi-experimental and experimental studies were included, if focused on school-based physical activity interventions targeting 3 to 18 year-old healthy pupils, and designed to establish a relationship between exercise performed in a school setting and cognitive/academic performance. Thirty-one papers were retrieved by the search, reporting the findings of twenty-eight school-based physical activity interventions. Most of the included studies were published in the past five years. A large majority of the studies showed positive results in terms of academic achievement and, above all, cognitive skills. In the recent years, the number of studies on school-based physical interventions aimed to establish a relationship between physical activity performed in school setting and cognitive/academic outcomes significantly increased, as well as high quality assessments and designs. This review highlights the effectiveness of school-based physical activity interventions on academic achievement and, above all, on youths’ cognitive performance. Some interesting findings come from studies assessing brain functional changes, from interventions targeting culturally diverse or low-income samples, and from interventions where physical activity is in the form of active videogames.

Some evidence shows that aerobic training can attenuate the aging effects on the brain structures and functions. However, the strength exercise effects are poorly discussed. Thus, in the present study, the effects of strength training on the brain in elderly people and Alzheimer`s disease (AD) patients were revised. Furthermore, it a biological explanation relating to strength training effects on the brain is proposed. Brain atrophy can be related to neurotransmission dysfunction, like oxidative stress, that generates mitochondrial damage and reduced brain metabolism. Another mechanism is related to amyloid deposition and amyloid tangles, that can be related to reductions on insulin-like growth factor I concentrations. The brain-derived neurotrophic factor also presents reduction during aging process and AD. These neuronal dysfunctions are also related to cerebral blood flow decline that influence brain metabolism. All of these alterations contribute to cognitive impairment and AD. After a long period of strength training, the oxidative stress can be reduced, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor and insulin-like growth factor I serum concentrations enhance, and the cognitive performance improves. Considering these results, we can infer that strength training can be related to increased neurogenesis, neuroplasticity and, consequently, counteracts aging effects on the brain. The effect of strength training as an additional treatment of AD needs further investigation.

The objective of the present study was to verify which physiological (percentage of maximum oxygen consumption - %VO2 or percentage of maximum heart rate - %HR) or psychological (ratings of perceived exertion - RPE) variable is the best predictor of affective responses during continuous (CT) and interval (HIT) exercise sessions. Fourteen men underwent 3 exercise sessions on the treadmill. In the first session, a graded exercise test was performed to determine the maximum HR, peak VO2, and the respiratory compensation point (RCP). Then, participants performed the CT and HIT exercise in a counterbalanced order. The HIT session consisted of 2 min stimuli with an intensity of 100% of peak VO2 interspersed with periods of passive recovery. The average intensities of both exercise sessions were equalized at 85% of RCP. Linear regression analyses of both exercise sessions showed higher prediction values of RPE (CT - R2=.54, p<.01; HIT - R2=.68, p<.01) compared to %VO2 (CT - R2=.04, p=.08; HIT - R2=0.3, p=.12) and %HR (CT - R2=.07, p=.02; HIT - R2=.05, p=.05). Additionally, the results of the linear regression analysis between the Feeling Scale and physiological variables were not significant, indicating that the slope of the regression analysis was not different from zero. These results may be explained by the conscious mental processing required for the manifestation of both the RPE and the affective responses. In conclusion, the affective responses seem to be modulated not only by the intensity of exercise but also mostly by how the individual perceives this intensity.

In the present study we examined the moderating effect of the power motive on salivary cortisol responses to acute psychosocial stress and exercise in adolescents. Fifty-seven high school students aged M = 14.8 years participated in the study. The Operant Motive Test was applied to measure the implicit power motive and the Personality Research Form was used to measure the explicit power motive. Salivary cortisol levels were assessed before and after the stress stimuli. Participants were randomly assigned to three experimental groups. An exercise group ran 15 minutes at a defined heart rate of 65-75% HRmax. A psychosocial stress group worked on a standard intelligence test for the same amount of time under the assumption, that their test scores will be made public in class after the test. The control group participated in a regular class session. The implicit power motive was significantly associated with increased cortisol levels in the psychosocial stress group. The explicit power motive was not associated with cortisol responses. Findings suggest that the implicit power motive moderates the cortisol responses to acute stress in an adolescent age group with higher responses to psychosocial stress in comparison to exercise or control conditions.

Recent studies have shown that, in addition to its well-known erythropoietic effects, erythropoietin has anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and neurotrophic effects in different tissues including the retina and optic nerve. In this review, we made a comprehensive search to define the therapeutic potential of erythropoietin in retinal and optic nerve diseases that lead to blindness.

One of the biggest problems and challenges for the development of new drugs and treatment strategies against Alzheimer Disease (AD) is the crossing of target drugs into the blood brain barrier. The use of nanoparticles in drug delivery therapy holds much promise in targeting remote tissues, and as a result many studies have attempted to study the ultrastructural localization of nanoparticles in various tissues. However, there are currently no in vivo studies demonstrating the ultrastructural distribution of nanoparticles in the brain. The aim of this study was to address how intraperitoneal injection of silver nanoparticles in the brain leads to leaking on the inter-endothelial contact and luminal plasma membrane, thus elucidating the possibility of penetrating into the most affected areas in the Alzheimer brain (vascular endothelium, perivascular, neuronal and glial cells). Our results show that the silver nanoparticles reached the brain and were found in hippocampal areas, indicating that they can be conjugated and used to deliver the drugs into the cell cytoplasm of the damaged brain cells. The present study can be useful for the development of novel drug delivering therapy and useful in understanding the delivery, distribution and effects of silver nanoparticles in AD brain tissue at cellular and subcellular level.