Skip to content
2000
Volume 23, Issue 13
  • ISSN: 1570-159X
  • E-ISSN: 1875-6190

Abstract

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of death and disability. Animal and clinical studies of TBI have greatly changed the clinical practice of TBI with the development and application of new technologies. However, with the development of forensic science, legal issues related to TBI continue to emerge, and it is still far from satisfactory that the practical application of relevant research findings as legal evidence in court practice. This review discusses an overview of the latest progress of TBI through neuropathological changes, secondary injury mechanisms, postmortem neuroimaging, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral impairments, biomarkers, and the effects of toxins and drugs on brain injury from a forensic perspective. Meanwhile, we highlight the interpretability and limitations of findings on TBI in legal proceedings are ongoing challenges.

© 2025 Bentham Science Publishers
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/cn/10.2174/011570159X352125241031030110
2025-02-26
2025-10-29

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/cn/10.2174/011570159X352125241031030110
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. MenonD.K. SchwabK. WrightD.W. MaasA.I. Position statement: Definition of traumatic brain injury.Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil.201091111637164010.1016/j.apmr.2010.05.017 21044706
     [Google Scholar]
  2. FeiginV.L. TheadomA. Barker-ColloS. StarkeyN.J. McPhersonK. KahanM. DowellA. BrownP. ParagV. KyddR. JonesK. JonesA. AmeratungaS. Incidence of traumatic brain injury in New Zealand: A population-based study.Lancet Neurol.2013121536410.1016/S1474‑4422(12)70262‑4 23177532
     [Google Scholar]
  3. FaulM. WaldM.M. Rutland-BrownW. SulliventE.E. SattinR.W. Using a cost-benefit analysis to estimate outcomes of a clinical treatment guideline: Testing the Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines for the treatment of severe traumatic brain injury.J. Trauma20076361271127810.1097/TA.0b013e3181493080 18212649
     [Google Scholar]
  4. DewanM.C. RattaniA. GuptaS. BaticulonR.E. HungY.C. PunchakM. AgrawalA. AdeleyeA.O. ShrimeM.G. RubianoA.M. RosenfeldJ.V. ParkK.B. Estimating the global incidence of traumatic brain injury.J. Neurosurg.201913041080109710.3171/2017.10.JNS17352 29701556
     [Google Scholar]
  5. RubianoA.M. CarneyN. ChesnutR. PuyanaJ.C. Global neurotrauma research challenges and opportunities.Nature20155277578S193S19710.1038/nature16035 26580327
     [Google Scholar]
  6. RoozenbeekB. MaasA.I.R. MenonD.K. Changing patterns in the epidemiology of traumatic brain injury.Nat. Rev. Neurol.20139423123610.1038/nrneurol.2013.22 23443846
     [Google Scholar]
  7. JiangJ.Y. GaoG.Y. FengJ.F. MaoQ. ChenL.G. YangX.F. LiuJ.F. WangY.H. QiuB.H. HuangX.J. Traumatic brain injury in China.Lancet Neurol.201918328629510.1016/S1474‑4422(18)30469‑1 30784557
     [Google Scholar]
  8. de RamirezS.S. HyderA.A. HerbertH.K. StevensK. Unintentional injuries: magnitude, prevention, and control.Annu. Rev. Public Health201233117519110.1146/annurev‑publhealth‑031811‑124558 22224893
     [Google Scholar]
  9. PearnM.L. NiesmanI.R. EgawaJ. SawadaA. Almenar-QueraltA. ShahS.B. DuckworthJ.L. HeadB.P. Pathophysiology associated with traumatic brain injury: Current treatments and potential novel therapeutics.Cell. Mol. Neurobiol.201737457158510.1007/s10571‑016‑0400‑1 27383839
     [Google Scholar]
  10. VellaM.A. CrandallM.L. PatelM.B. Acute management of traumatic brain injury.Surg. Clin. North Am.20179751015103010.1016/j.suc.2017.06.003 28958355
     [Google Scholar]
  11. SpaiteD.W. BobrowB.J. KeimS.M. Association of statewide implementation of the prehospital traumatic brain injury treatment guidelines with patient survival following traumatic brain injury: The excellence in prehospital injury care (EPIC) study.JAMA Surg.2019154e191152
     [Google Scholar]
  12. McMullanJ.T. VenturaA. LeBlancD.P. Emergency medical services traumatic brain injury protocols do not reflect brain trauma foundation guidelines.Prehosp. Emerg. Care202125334735010.1080/10903127.2020.1770388 32412355
     [Google Scholar]
  13. van EssenT.A. den BoogertH.F. CnossenM.C. de RuiterG.C.W. HaitsmaI. PolinderS. SteyerbergE.W. MenonD. MaasA.I.R. LingsmaH.F. PeulW.C. Variation in neurosurgical management of traumatic brain injury: A survey in 68 centers participating in the CENTER-TBI study.Acta Neurochir. (Wien)2019161343544910.1007/s00701‑018‑3761‑z 30569224
     [Google Scholar]
  14. CookA.M. Morgan JonesG. HawrylukG.W.J. MaillouxP. McLaughlinD. PapangelouA. SamuelS. TokumaruS. VenkatasubramanianC. ZackoC. ZimmermannL.L. HirschK. ShutterL. Guidelines for the acute treatment of cerebral edema in neurocritical care patients.Neurocrit. Care202032364766610.1007/s12028‑020‑00959‑7 32227294
     [Google Scholar]
  15. HuieJ.R. MondelloS. LindsellC.J. AntigaL. YuhE.L. ZanierE.R. MassonS. RosarioB.L. FergusonA.R. AdeoyeO. BadjatiaN. BoaseK. BodienY. BullockM.R. ChesnutR. CorriganJ.D. CrawfordK. Diaz-ArrastiaR. DikmenS. DuhaimeA-C. EllenbogenR. FeeserV.R. ForemanB. GardnerR. GaudetteE. GiacinoJ. GoldmanD. GonzalezL. GopinathS. GullapalliR. HemphillJ.C. HotzG. JainS. KorleyF. KramerJ. KreitzerN. LevinH. MachamerJ. MaddenC. ManleyG.T. MartinA. McAllisterT. McCreaM. MerchantR. MukherjeeP. NelsonL. NgwenyaL.B. NoelF. OkonkwoD. PerlD. PuccioA. RabinowitzM. RobertsonC. RosandJ. SanderA. SchnyerD. SeaburyS. SteinM. TaylorS. TemkinN. TogaA. ValadkaA. VassarM. VespaP. WangK. YueJ.K. ZafonteR. AckerlundC. AdamsH. AgnolettiV. AllansonJ. AmreinK. AndaluzN. AndelicN. AndreassenL. AnkeA. AntunA. AntoniA. ArdonH. AuslandsK. AzouviP. LuisaA.M. BaciuC. BadenesR. BartelsR. BarzóP. BauerfeindU. BeauvaisR. BeerR. BeldaF.J. BellanderB.M. BelliA. BellierR. BenaliH. BenardT. BerardinoM. BerettaL. BeynonC. BilottaF. BinderH. BiqiriE. BlaabjergM. BoogertH. BraggeP. BrazinovaA. BrinckV. BrookerJ. BrorssonC. BukiA. BullingerM. CabeleiraM. CalappiE. CalviM.R. CameronP. CarbayoL.G. CarbonaraM. CariseE. CarpenterK. Castaño LeónA.M. CausinF. ChevallardG. ChieregatoA. CiterioG. CnossenM. CoburnM. ColesJ. Coles-KempL. CollettJ. CooperJ.D. CorreiaM. CovicA. CurryN. CzeiterE. CzosnykaM. FizelierC.D. DamasF. DamasP. DawesH. De KeyserV. CorteF.D. DepreitereB. de RuiterG.C.W. DilvesiD. DingS. DippelD. DixitA. DonoghueE. DreierJ. DulièreG.L. EngemannH. ErcoleA. EsserP. EzerE. FabriciusM. FeiginV.L. FengJ. FoksK. FossiF. FranconyG. FreoU. FrisvoldS. FurmanovA. GagliardoP. GalanaudD. GantnerD. GaoG. GeleijnsK. GeorgeP. GhuysenA. GigaL. GiraudB. GlockerB. GolubovicJ. GomezP.A. GravesteijnB. GrossiF. GruenR.L. GuptaD. HaagsmaJ.A. HåbergA.K. JacobsB. HaitsmaI. HartingsJ.A. HelbokR. HelsethE. HertleD. HoedemaekersA. HoeferS. HortonL. HuijbenJ. HutchinsonP.J. JankowskiS. JarrettM. JelacaB. JiangJ. JonesK. KamnitsasK. KaranM. KatilaA. KaukonenM. KerforneT. KivisaariR. KoliasA.G. KolumbánB. KompanjeE. KolundzijaK. KondziellaD. KoskinenL.O. KovácsN. LagaresA. LanyonL. LaureysS. LeckyF. LedigC. LeferingR. LegrandV. LeiJ. LeviL. LightfootR. LingsmaH. LoeckxD. LozanoA. MaasA.I.R. MacDonaldS. MaegeleM. MarekM. MajorS. ManaraA. ManleyG. MartinD. MartinL.F. MartinoC. MaréchalH. MaruendaA. MasalaA. MatternJ. McFadyenC. McMahonC. MeleghB. MenonD. MenovskyT. KossmannC.M. MulazziD. MühlanH. MuraleedharanV. MurrayL. NairN. NegruA. NelsonD. NewcombeV. NieboerD. NoirhommeQ. NyirádiJ. OddoM. OldenbeuvingA. OresicM. OrtolanoF. PalotieA. ParizelP.M. PatrunoA. PayenJ.F. PereraN. PerlbargV. PersonaP. PeulW. Piippo-KarjalainenA. PiliF.S. PirinenM. PlesH. PocaM.A. PolinderS. PomposoI. PostiJ. PuybassetL. RadoiA. RagauskasA. RajR. RambadagallaM. RealR. RehorčíkováV. RhodesJ. RipattiS. RockaS. RoeC. RoiseO. RoksG. RosandJ. RosenfeldJ. RosenlundC. RosenthalG. RossaintR. RossiS. RueckertD. RusnákM. SacchiM. SahakianB. SahuquilloJ. SakowitzO. SalaF. PorrasR.S. SandorJ. SantosE. SasuL. SavoD. SchäfferN. SchipperI. SchlößerB. SchmidtS. SchoechlH. SchoonmanG. SchouR.F. SchwendenweinE. SchöllM. SewaltC. SirÖ. SkandsenT. SmakmanL. SmeetsD. SmielewskiP. SorinolaA. StamatakisE. StanworthS. SteinbüchelN. StevanovicA. StevensR. StewartW. SteyerbergE.W. StocchettiN. SundströmN. SynnotA. TacconeF.S. TakalaR. TamásV. TanskanenP. TaylorM.S. Te AoB. TenovuoO. TelgmannR. TeodoraniG. TheadomA. ThomasM. TibboelD. ToliasC. TshibandaJ.F.L. TrapaniT. TudoraC.M. VajkoczyP. VallanceS. ValeinisE. der SteenG.V. der JagtM. de NaaltJ.V. van DijckJ.T.J.M. van EssenT.A. HeckeW.V. HeugtenC. PraagD.V. VyvereT.V. WaesbergheJ.V. VanhaudenhuyseA. VargioluA. VegaE. VeltK. VerheydenJ. VespaP.M. VikA. VilcinisR. VizzinoG. LankampC.V. VoloviciV. VoormolenD. VulekovicP. VámosZ. WadeD. WangK.K.W. WangL. WesselsL. WiegersE. WildschutE. WilliamsG. WilsonL. WinklerM.K.L. WolfS. YlénP. YounsiA. ZaaroorM. ZeilerF. ZhihuiY. ZiverteA. ZumboF. Biomarkers for traumatic brain injury: Data standards and statistical considerations.J. Neurotrauma202138182514252910.1089/neu.2019.6762 32046588
     [Google Scholar]
  16. CiterioG. PriscoL. OddoM. MeyfroidtG. HelbokR. StocchettiN. TacconeF. VincentJ.L. RobbaC. ElliF. SalaE. VargioluA. LingsmaH. International prospective observational study on intracranial pressure in intensive care (ICU): The SYNAPSE-ICU study protocol.BMJ Open201994e02655210.1136/bmjopen‑2018‑026552 31005932
     [Google Scholar]
  17. BazarianJ.J. BiberthalerP. WelchR.D. LewisL.M. BarzoP. Bogner-FlatzV. Gunnar BrolinsonP. BükiA. ChenJ.Y. ChristensonR.H. HackD. HuffJ.S. JoharS. JordanJ.D. LeidelB.A. LindnerT. LudingtonE. OkonkwoD.O. OrnatoJ. PeacockW.F. SchmidtK. TyndallJ.A. VossoughA. JagodaA.S. Serum GFAP and UCH-L1 for prediction of absence of intracranial injuries on head CT (ALERT-TBI): A multicentre observational study.Lancet Neurol.201817978278910.1016/S1474‑4422(18)30231‑X 30054151
     [Google Scholar]
  18. LagerstedtL. AzurmendiL. TenovuoO. KatilaA.J. TakalaR.S.K. BlennowK. NewcombeV.F.J. MaanpääH.R. TallusJ. HossainI. GilsM. MenonD.K. HutchinsonP.J. ZetterbergH. PostiJ.P. SanchezJ.C. Interleukin 10 and heart fatty acid-binding protein as early outcome predictors in patients with traumatic brain injury.Front. Neurol.20201137610.3389/fneur.2020.00376 32581990
     [Google Scholar]
  19. PapaL. BrophyG.M. WelchR.D. LewisL.M. BragaC.F. TanC.N. AmeliN.J. LopezM.A. HaeusslerC.A. Mendez GiordanoD.I. SilvestriS. GiordanoP. WeberK.D. Hill-PryorC. HackD.C. Time course and diagnostic accuracy of glial and neuronal blood biomarkers GFAP and UCH-L1 in a large cohort of trauma patients with and without mild traumatic brain injury.JAMA Neurol.201673555156010.1001/jamaneurol.2016.0039 27018834
     [Google Scholar]
  20. RubensteinR. ChangB. YueJ. Comparing plasma phospho tau, total tau, and phospho tau-total tau ratio as acute and chronic traumatic brain injury biomarkers.JAMA Neurol.20177491063107210.1001/jamaneurol.2017.0655
     [Google Scholar]
  21. GhaithH.S. NawarA.A. GabraM.D. AbdelrahmanM.E. NafadyM.H. BahbahE.I. EbadaM.A. AshrafG.M. NegidaA. BarretoG.E. A literature review of traumatic brain injury biomarkers.Mol. Neurobiol.20225974141415810.1007/s12035‑022‑02822‑6 35499796
     [Google Scholar]
  22. ZhengL. PangQ. XuH. GuoH. LiuR. WangT. The neurobiological links between stress and traumatic brain injury: A review of research to date.Int. J. Mol. Sci.20222317951910.3390/ijms23179519 36076917
     [Google Scholar]
  23. BertozziG. MagliettaF. SessaF. ScotoE. CipolloniL. Di MizioG. SalernoM. PomaraC. Traumatic brain injury: A forensic approach: A literature review.Curr. Neuropharmacol.202018653855010.2174/1570159X17666191101123145 31686630
     [Google Scholar]
  24. FinnieJ.W. Forensic pathology of traumatic brain injury.Vet. Pathol.201653596297810.1177/0300985815612155 26578643
     [Google Scholar]
  25. La RussaR. MaieseA. CipolloniL. Di FazioN. DeloguG. De MatteisA. Del FanteZ. ManettiF. FratiP. FineschiV. Diagnostic assessment of traumatic brain injury by vacuum extraction in newborns: Overview on forensic perspectives and proposal of operating procedures.Front. Biosci. (Landmark Ed.)202227307910.31083/j.fbl2703079 35345311
     [Google Scholar]
  26. WangY. ChenQ. DangX. LuW. ZhangX. YanH. NiuS. YanX. YanJ. A bibliometric analysis on traumatic brain injury in forensic medicine of a half-century (1972-2021).Front. Neurol.20231491385510.3389/fneur.2023.913855 36816552
     [Google Scholar]
  27. ChenQ. ChenX. XuL. ZhangR. LiZ. YueX. QiaoD. Traumatic axonal injury: neuropathological features, postmortem diagnostic methods, and strategies.Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol.202218453054410.1007/s12024‑022‑00522‑0 36117238
     [Google Scholar]
  28. CastellaniR.J. SmithM. BaileyK. PerryG. deJongJ.L. Neuropathology in consecutive forensic consultation cases with a history of remote traumatic brain injury.J. Alzheimers Dis.201972368369110.3233/JAD‑190782 31609691
     [Google Scholar]
  29. RomeroT.M.Á. BlancoP.J.M. GallegoG.R. Dating of traumatic brain injury in forensic cases using immunohistochemical markers (I).Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol.201839320120710.1097/PAF.0000000000000412 29901458
     [Google Scholar]
  30. KoludarovaE.M. Sudebno-meditsinskie kriterii diagnostiki davnosti diffuznogo aksonal’nogo povrezhdeniya mozga pri cherepno-mozgovoi travme.Sud. Med. Ekspert.2021643172010.17116/sudmed20216403117 34013689
     [Google Scholar]
  31. KenzieE.S. ParksE.L. BiglerE.D. WrightD.W. LimM.M. ChesnuttJ.C. HawrylukG.W.J. GordonW. WakelandW. The dynamics of concussion: mapping pathophysiology, persistence, and recovery with causal-loop diagramming.Front. Neurol.2018920310.3389/fneur.2018.00203 29670568
     [Google Scholar]
  32. WeaverS.M. PortelliJ.N. ChauA. CristoforiI. MorettiL. GrafmanJ. Genetic polymorphisms and traumatic brain injury: the contribution of individual differences to recovery.Brain Imaging Behav.20148342043410.1007/s11682‑012‑9197‑9 22878895
     [Google Scholar]
  33. WatersR.J. MurrayG.D. TeasdaleG.M. StewartJ. DayI. LeeR.J. NicollJ.A.R. Cytokine gene polymorphisms and outcome after traumatic brain injury.J. Neurotrauma201330201710171610.1089/neu.2012.2792 23768161
     [Google Scholar]
  34. BlennowK. BrodyD.L. KochanekP.M. LevinH. McKeeA. RibbersG.M. YaffeK. ZetterbergH. Traumatic brain injuries.Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers2016211608410.1038/nrdp.2016.84 27853132
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Haarbauer-KrupaJ. PughM.J. PragerE.M. HarmonN. WolfeJ. YaffeK. Epidemiology of chronic effects of traumatic brain injury.J. Neurotrauma202138233235324710.1089/neu.2021.0062 33947273
     [Google Scholar]
  36. CapizziA. WooJ. Verduzco-GutierrezM. Traumatic brain injury.Med. Clin. North Am.2020104221323810.1016/j.mcna.2019.11.001 32035565
     [Google Scholar]
  37. RuleG. BocchieriR. BurnsJ. YoungL. Biophysical mechanisms of traumatic brain injuries.Semin. Neurol.201535100501110.1055/s‑0035‑1544242 25714862
     [Google Scholar]
  38. NakagawaA. ManleyG.T. GeanA.D. OhtaniK. ArmondaR. TsukamotoA. YamamotoH. TakayamaK. TominagaT. Mechanisms of primary blast-induced traumatic brain injury: Insights from shock-wave research.J. Neurotrauma20112861101111910.1089/neu.2010.1442 21332411
     [Google Scholar]
  39. HoogenboomW.S. BranchC.A. LiptonM.L. Animal models of closed-skull, repetitive mild traumatic brain injury.Pharmacol. Ther.201919810912210.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.02.016 30822463
     [Google Scholar]
  40. KhellafA. KhanD.Z. HelmyA. Recent advances in traumatic brain injury.J. Neurol.2019266112878288910.1007/s00415‑019‑09541‑4 31563989
     [Google Scholar]
  41. ChamounR. SukiD. GopinathS.P. GoodmanJ.C. RobertsonC. Role of extracellular glutamate measured by cerebral microdialysis in severe traumatic brain injury.J. Neurosurg.2010113356457010.3171/2009.12.JNS09689 20113156
     [Google Scholar]
  42. PalmieriM. FratiA. SantoroA. FratiP. FineschiV. PesceA. Diffuse axonal injury: Clinical prognostic factors, molecular experimental models and the impact of the trauma related oxidative stress. An extensive review concerning milestones and advances.Int. J. Mol. Sci.202122191086510.3390/ijms221910865 34639206
     [Google Scholar]
  43. SmithD.H. MeaneyD.F. ShullW.H. Diffuse axonal injury in head trauma.J. Head Trauma Rehabil.200318430731610.1097/00001199‑200307000‑00003 16222127
     [Google Scholar]
  44. MaxwellW.L. PovlishockJ.T. GrahamD.L. A mechanistic analysis of nondisruptive axonal injury: A review.J. Neurotrauma199714741944010.1089/neu.1997.14.419 9257661
     [Google Scholar]
  45. ShawG. YangC. EllisR. AndersonK. Parker MickleJ. ScheffS. PikeB. AndersonD.K. HowlandD.R. Hyperphosphorylated neurofilament NF-H is a serum biomarker of axonal injury.Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.200533641268127710.1016/j.bbrc.2005.08.252 16176808
     [Google Scholar]
  46. McGinnM.J. PovlishockJ.T. Pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury.Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am.201627439740710.1016/j.nec.2016.06.002 27637392
     [Google Scholar]
  47. BarkhoudarianG. HovdaD.A. GizaC.C. The molecular pathophysiology of concussive brain injury-an update.Phys. Med. Rehabil. Clin. N. Am.201627237339310.1016/j.pmr.2016.01.003 27154851
     [Google Scholar]
  48. SalehiA. ZhangJ.H. ObenausA. Response of the cerebral vasculature following traumatic brain injury.J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab.20173772320233910.1177/0271678X17701460 28378621
     [Google Scholar]
  49. ZiebellJ.M. AdelsonP.D. LifshitzJ. Microglia: Dismantling and rebuilding circuits after acute neurological injury.Metab. Brain Dis.201530239340010.1007/s11011‑014‑9539‑y 24733573
     [Google Scholar]
  50. KumarA. LoaneD.J. Neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury: Opportunities for therapeutic intervention.Brain Behav. Immun.20122681191120110.1016/j.bbi.2012.06.008 22728326
     [Google Scholar]
  51. LadakA.A. EnamS.A. IbrahimM.T. A review of the molecular mechanisms of traumatic brain injury.World Neurosurg.201913112613210.1016/j.wneu.2019.07.039 31301445
     [Google Scholar]
  52. ZhouY. FanR. BotchwayB.O.A. ZhangY. LiuX. Infliximab can improve traumatic brain injury by suppressing the tumor necrosis factor alpha pathway.Mol. Neurobiol.20215862803281110.1007/s12035‑021‑02293‑1 33501626
     [Google Scholar]
  53. HuntR.F. BoychukJ.A. SmithB.N. Neural circuit mechanisms of post-traumatic epilepsy.Front. Cell. Neurosci.201378910.3389/fncel.2013.00089 23785313
     [Google Scholar]
  54. DelicV. BeckK.D. PangK.C.H. CitronB.A. Biological links between traumatic brain injury and Parkinson’s disease.Acta Neuropathol. Commun.2020814510.1186/s40478‑020‑00924‑7 32264976
     [Google Scholar]
  55. BrettB.L. GardnerR.C. GodboutJ. Dams-O’ConnorK. KeeneC.D. Traumatic brain injury and risk of neurodegenerative disorder.Biol. Psychiatry202291549850710.1016/j.biopsych.2021.05.025 34364650
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Ramos-CejudoJ. WisniewskiT. MarmarC. ZetterbergH. BlennowK. de LeonM.J. FossatiS. Traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer’s disease: The cerebrovascular link.EBioMedicine201828213010.1016/j.ebiom.2018.01.021 29396300
     [Google Scholar]
  57. SmirnovD. GalaskoD. Dynamics of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease.Lancet Neurol.202221429729810.1016/S1474‑4422(22)00087‑4 35305329
     [Google Scholar]
  58. HenekaM.T. CarsonM.J. KhouryJ.E. LandrethG.E. BrosseronF. FeinsteinD.L. JacobsA.H. Wyss-CorayT. VitoricaJ. RansohoffR.M. HerrupK. FrautschyS.A. FinsenB. BrownG.C. VerkhratskyA. YamanakaK. KoistinahoJ. LatzE. HalleA. PetzoldG.C. TownT. MorganD. ShinoharaM.L. PerryV.H. HolmesC. BazanN.G. BrooksD.J. HunotS. JosephB. DeigendeschN. GaraschukO. BoddekeE. DinarelloC.A. BreitnerJ.C. ColeG.M. GolenbockD.T. KummerM.P. Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease.Lancet Neurol.201514438840510.1016/S1474‑4422(15)70016‑5 25792098
     [Google Scholar]
  59. BaiR. GuoJ. YeX.Y. XieY. XieT. Oxidative stress: The core pathogenesis and mechanism of Alzheimer’s disease.Ageing Res. Rev.20227710161910.1016/j.arr.2022.101619 35395415
     [Google Scholar]
  60. RamírezB.G. BlázquezC. del PulgarT.G. GuzmánM. de CeballosM.L. Prevention of Alzheimer’s disease pathology by cannabinoids: neuroprotection mediated by blockade of microglial activation.J. Neurosci.20052581904191310.1523/JNEUROSCI.4540‑04.2005 15728830
     [Google Scholar]
  61. SastreM. DewachterI. LandrethG.E. WillsonT.M. KlockgetherT. van LeuvenF. HenekaM.T. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonists modulate immunostimulated processing of amyloid precursor protein through regulation of beta-secretase.J. Neurosci.200323309796980410.1523/JNEUROSCI.23‑30‑09796.2003 14586007
     [Google Scholar]
  62. DumanR.S. GirgentiM.J. Molecular and cellular studies of PTSD: Postmortem transcriptome analysis and novel therapeutic targets.J. Neurosci. Res.201997329229910.1002/jnr.24306 30136735
     [Google Scholar]
  63. CompeanE. HamnerM. Posttraumatic stress disorder with secondary psychotic features (PTSD-SP): Diagnostic and treatment challenges.Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry20198826527510.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.08.001
     [Google Scholar]
  64. HeimC. NewportD.J. MletzkoT. MillerA.H. NemeroffC.B. The link between childhood trauma and depression: Insights from HPA axis studies in humans.Psychoneuroendocrinology200833669371010.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.008 18602762
     [Google Scholar]
  65. WeisC.N. WebbE.K. deRoon-CassiniT.A. LarsonC.L. Emotion dysregulation following trauma: Shared neurocircuitry of traumatic brain injury and trauma-related psychiatric disorders.Biol. Psychiatry202291547047710.1016/j.biopsych.2021.07.023 34561028
     [Google Scholar]
  66. HowlettJ.R. NelsonL.D. SteinM.B. Mental health consequences of traumatic brain injury.Biol. Psychiatry202291541342010.1016/j.biopsych.2021.09.024 34893317
     [Google Scholar]
  67. ChenY.F. ZhaoH. Post-traumatic stress disorder: Relationship to traumatic brain injury and approach to forensic psychiatry evaluation.J. Forensic Sci. Med.201951333910.4103/jfsm.jfsm_46_18
     [Google Scholar]
  68. SteinM.B. KesslerR.C. HeeringaS.G. JainS. Campbell-SillsL. ColpeL.J. FullertonC.S. NockM.K. SampsonN.A. SchoenbaumM. SunX. ThomasM.L. UrsanoR.J. Prospective longitudinal evaluation of the effect of deployment-acquired traumatic brain injury on posttraumatic stress and related disorders: results from the Army Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers (Army STARRS).Am. J. Psychiatry2015172111101111110.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14121572 26337036
     [Google Scholar]
  69. BonannoG.A. ManciniA.D. HortonJ.L. PowellT.M. LeardMann, C.A.; Boyko, E.J.; Wells, T.S.; Hooper, T.I.; Gackstetter, G.D.; Smith, T.C. Trajectories of trauma symptoms and resilience in deployed US military service members: Prospective cohort study.Br. J. Psychiatry2012200431732310.1192/bjp.bp.111.096552 22361018
     [Google Scholar]
  70. AlwayY. GouldK.R. McKayA. JohnstonL. PonsfordJ. The evolution of post-traumatic stress disorder following moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury.J. Neurotrauma201633982583110.1089/neu.2015.3992 26176500
     [Google Scholar]
  71. FitzgeraldJ.M. DiGangiJ.A. PhanK.L. Functional neuroanatomy of emotion and its regulation in PTSD.Harv. Rev. Psychiatry201826311612810.1097/HRP.0000000000000185 29734226
     [Google Scholar]
  72. HoffmanA.N. TaylorA.N. Stress reactivity after traumatic brain injury: Implications for comorbid post-traumatic stress disorder.Behav. Pharmacol.2019302 & 3 special issue11512110.1097/FBP.0000000000000461
     [Google Scholar]
  73. EtkinA. BüchelC. GrossJ.J. The neural bases of emotion regulation.Nat. Rev. Neurosci.2015161169370010.1038/nrn4044 26481098
     [Google Scholar]
  74. RiceT.R. Commentary: The neural bases of emotion regulation.Front. Psychol.2016747610.3389/fpsyg.2016.00476 27065935
     [Google Scholar]
  75. MartinR.E. OchsnerK.N. The neuroscience of emotion regulation development: Implications for education.Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci.20161014214810.1016/j.cobeha.2016.06.006 27822488
     [Google Scholar]
  76. HuangM. LewineJ.D. LeeR.R. Magnetoencephalography for mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder.Neuroimaging Clin. N. Am.202030217519210.1016/j.nic.2020.02.003 32336405
     [Google Scholar]
  77. BolzeniusJ.D. VelezC.S. LewisJ.D. BiglerE.D. WadeB.S.C. CooperD.B. KennedyJ.E. ReidM.W. RitterJ.L. YorkG.E. TateD.F. Diffusion imaging findings in US service members with mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder.J. Head Trauma Rehabil.201833639340210.1097/HTR.0000000000000378 29385017
     [Google Scholar]
  78. BocciaM. D’AmicoS. BianchiniF. MaranoA. GianniniA.M. PiccardiL. Different neural modifications underpin PTSD after different traumatic events: An fMRI meta-analytic study.Brain Imaging Behav.201610122623710.1007/s11682‑015‑9387‑3 25913645
     [Google Scholar]
  79. SamuelsA.H. Civil forensic psychiatry – Part 2: specific issues.Australas. Psychiatry201826325225510.1177/1039856218759236 29457475
     [Google Scholar]
  80. CalvilloM. IrimiaA. Neuroimaging and psychometric assessment of mild cognitive impairment after traumatic brain injury.Front. Psychol.202011142310.3389/fpsyg.2020.01423 32733322
     [Google Scholar]
  81. PrinceC. BruhnsM. Evaluation and treatment of mild traumatic brain injury: The role of neuropsychology.Brain Sci.20177810510.3390/brainsci7080105 28817065
     [Google Scholar]
  82. McInnesK. FriesenC.L. MacKenzieD.E. WestwoodD.A. BoeS.G. Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) and chronic cognitive impairment: A scoping review.PLoS One2017124e017484710.1371/journal.pone.0174847 28399158
     [Google Scholar]
  83. SpinosP. SakellaropoulosG. GeorgiopoulosM. StavridiK. ApostolopoulouK. EllulJ. ConstantoyannisC. Postconcussion syndrome after mild traumatic brain injury in Western Greece.J. Trauma201069478979410.1097/TA.0b013e3181edea67 20938266
     [Google Scholar]
  84. PonsfordJ.L. DowningM.G. OlverJ. PonsfordM. AcherR. CartyM. SpitzG. Longitudinal follow-up of patients with traumatic brain injury: Outcome at two, five, and ten years post-injury.J. Neurotrauma2014311647710.1089/neu.2013.2997 23889321
     [Google Scholar]
  85. TheadomA. McDonaldS. StarkeyN. Barker-ColloS. JonesK.M. AmeratungaS. WilsonE. FeiginV.L. Social cognition four years after mild-TBI: An age-matched prospective longitudinal cohort study.Neuropsychology201933456056710.1037/neu0000516 30920237
     [Google Scholar]
  86. JonesJ.M. HaslamS.A. JettenJ. WilliamsW.H. MorrisR. SaroyanS. That which doesn’t kill us can make us stronger (and more satisfied with life): The contribution of personal and social changes to well-being after acquired brain injury.Psychol. Health201126335336910.1080/08870440903440699 20419563
     [Google Scholar]
  87. PavlovicD. PekicS. StojanovicM. PopovicV. Traumatic brain injury: neuropathological, neurocognitive and neurobehavioral sequelae.Pituitary201922327028210.1007/s11102‑019‑00957‑9 30929221
     [Google Scholar]
  88. PopovicV. PekicS. PavlovicD. MaricN. Jasovic-GasicM. DjurovicB. Medic-StojanoskaM. ZivkovicV. StojanovicM. DoknicM. MilicN. DjurovicM. DieguezC. CasanuevaF.F. Hypopituitarism as a consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and its possible relation with cognitive disabilities and mental distress.J. Endocrinol. Invest.200427111048105410.1007/BF03345308 15754737
     [Google Scholar]
  89. LiM. SirkoS. Traumatic brain injury: At the crossroads of neuropathology and common metabolic endocrinopathies.J. Clin. Med.2018735910.3390/jcm7030059 29538298
     [Google Scholar]
  90. LiC. XuJ.J. HuH.T. ShiC.Y. YuC.J. ShengJ.Z. WuY.T. HuangH.F. Amylin receptor insensitivity impairs hypothalamic POMC neuron differentiation in the male offspring of maternal high-fat diet-fed mice.Mol. Metab.20214410113510.1016/j.molmet.2020.101135 33279727
     [Google Scholar]
  91. MeleC. PingueV. CaputoM. ZavattaroM. PaganoL. ProdamF. NardoneA. AimarettiG. MarzulloP. Neuroinflammation and hypothalamo-pituitary dysfunction: Focus of traumatic brain injury.Int. J. Mol. Sci.2021225268610.3390/ijms22052686 33799967
     [Google Scholar]
  92. ArwertL.I. VeltmanD.J. DeijenJ.B. van DamP.S. DrentM.L. Effects of growth hormone substitution therapy on cognitive functioning in growth hormone deficient patients: A functional MRI study.Neuroendocrinology2006831121910.1159/000093337 16707911
     [Google Scholar]
  93. FalletiM.G. MaruffP. BurmanP. HarrisA. The effects of growth hormone (GH) deficiency and GH replacement on cognitive performance in adults: A meta-analysis of the current literature.Psychoneuroendocrinology200631668169110.1016/j.psyneuen.2006.01.005 16621325
     [Google Scholar]
  94. NybergF. HallbergM. Growth hormone and cognitive function.Nat. Rev. Endocrinol.20139635736510.1038/nrendo.2013.78 23629538
     [Google Scholar]
  95. Nieves-MartinezE. SonntagW.E. WilsonA. DonahueA. MolinaD.P. Brunso-BechtoldJ. NicolleM.M. Early-onset GH deficiency results in spatial memory impairment in mid-life and is prevented by GH supplementation.J. Endocrinol.20102041313610.1677/JOE‑09‑0323 19815586
     [Google Scholar]
  96. ChaplinJ.E. KriströmB. JonssonB. TuvemoT. Albertsson-WiklandK. Growth hormone treatment improves cognitive function in short children with growth hormone deficiency.Horm. Res. Paediatr.201583639039910.1159/000375529 25823753
     [Google Scholar]
  97. PavlovicD. PekicS. StojanovicM. ZivkovicV. DjurovicB. JovanovicV. MiljicN. Medic-StojanoskaM. DoknicM. MiljicD. DjurovicM. CasanuevaF. PopovicV. Chronic cognitive sequelae after traumatic brain injury are not related to growth hormone deficiency in adults.Eur. J. Neurol.201017569670210.1111/j.1468‑1331.2009.02910.x 20050894
     [Google Scholar]
  98. DevesaJ. ReimundeP. DevesaP. BarberáM. ArceV. Growth hormone (GH) and brain trauma.Horm. Behav.201363233134410.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.02.022 22405763
     [Google Scholar]
  99. LaiJ. ShiY.C. LinS. ChenX.R. Metabolic disorders on cognitive dysfunction after traumatic brain injury.Trends Endocrinol. Metab.202233745146210.1016/j.tem.2022.04.003 35534336
     [Google Scholar]
  100. ZhangS. LachanceB.B. MattsonM.P. JiaX. Glucose metabolic crosstalk and regulation in brain function and diseases.Prog. Neurobiol.202120410208910.1016/j.pneurobio.2021.102089 34118354
     [Google Scholar]
  101. HotamisligilG.S. Inflammation and metabolic disorders.Nature2006444712186086710.1038/nature05485 17167474
     [Google Scholar]
  102. McKeeA.C. SteinT.D. HuberB.R. CraryJ.F. BieniekK. DicksonD. AlvarezV.E. CherryJ.D. FarrellK. ButlerM. UretskyM. AbdolmohammadiB. AloscoM.L. TripodisY. MezJ. DaneshvarD.H. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE): Criteria for neuropathological diagnosis and relationship to repetitive head impacts.Acta Neuropathol.2023145437139410.1007/s00401‑023‑02540‑w 36759368
     [Google Scholar]
  103. MezJ. DaneshvarD.H. KiernanP.T. AbdolmohammadiB. AlvarezV.E. HuberB.R. AloscoM.L. SolomonT.M. NowinskiC.J. McHaleL. CormierK.A. KubilusC.A. MartinB.M. MurphyL. BaughC.M. MontenigroP.H. ChaissonC.E. TripodisY. KowallN.W. WeuveJ. McCleanM.D. CantuR.C. GoldsteinL.E. KatzD.I. SternR.A. SteinT.D. McKeeA.C. Clinicopathological evaluation of chronic traumatic encephalopathy in players of American football.JAMA2017318436037010.1001/jama.2017.8334 28742910
     [Google Scholar]
  104. MckeeA.C. AbdolmohammadiB. SteinT.D. The neuropathology of chronic traumatic encephalopathy.Handb. Clin. Neurol.201815829730710.1016/B978‑0‑444‑63954‑7.00028‑8 30482357
     [Google Scholar]
  105. PierreK. DysonK. DagraA. WilliamsE. PorcheK. Lucke-WoldB. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: Update on current clinical diagnosis and management.Biomedicines20219441510.3390/biomedicines9040415 33921385
     [Google Scholar]
  106. AloscoM.L. MarianiM.L. AdlerC.H. BalcerL.J. BernickC. AuR. BanksS.J. BarrW.B. BouixS. CantuR.C. ColemanM.J. DodickD.W. FarrerL.A. GedaY.E. KatzD.I. KoerteI.K. KowallN.W. LinA.P. MarcusD.S. MarekK.L. McCleanM.D. McKeeA.C. MezJ. PalmisanoJ.N. PeskindE.R. TripodisY. TurnerR.W.II WetheJ.V. CummingsJ.L. ReimanE.M. ShentonM.E. SternR.A. AdlerC.H. AloscoM.L. AuR. BalcerL. BanksS. BarrW. BernickC. BouixS. CantuR.C. ChenK. ColemanM.J. CummingsJ.L. DodickD.W. FarrerL. FitzsimmonsJ. GedaY. GoldbergJ. HelmR. JohnsonK.A. KatzD.I. KirovI. KoerteI.K. KowallN. LinA.P. LuiY. MarcusD.S. MarekK.L. MarianiM. MarmarC. McCleanM. McKeeA.C. MezJ. MillerJ. PalmisanoJ.N. PasternakO. PeskindE.R. ProtasH. ReimanE. RitterA. ShentonM.E. SternR.A. SuY. TripodisY. TurnerR.W. WellerJ. WetheJ.V. Developing methods to detect and diagnose chronic traumatic encephalopathy during life: rationale, design, and methodology for the DIAGNOSE CTE Research Project.Alzheimers Res. Ther.202113113610.1186/s13195‑021‑00872‑x 34384490
     [Google Scholar]
  107. BlaylockR. MaroonJ. Immunoexcitotoxicity as a central mechanism in chronic traumatic encephalopathy-A unifying hypothesis.Surg. Neurol. Int.20112110710.4103/2152‑7806.83391 21886880
     [Google Scholar]
  108. ByardR. TiemensmaM. BucklandM.E. VinkR. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)—features and forensic considerations.Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol.202319462062410.1007/s12024‑023‑00624‑3 37058211
     [Google Scholar]
  109. RandolphC. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy is not a real disease.Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol.201833564464810.1093/arclin/acy063 30169776
     [Google Scholar]
  110. ByardR.W. Sports-related deaths.Payne-James J, Byard RW. Forensic and legal medicine: Clinical and pathological aspects.Taylor and Francis Publishers202310.1201/9781003138754‑42
     [Google Scholar]
  111. KingT. RosenbergM. BrahamR. FergusonR. DawsonB. Life after the game – Injury profile of past elite Australian Football players.J. Sci. Med. Sport201316430230610.1016/j.jsams.2012.09.003 23058879
     [Google Scholar]
  112. VaaramoK. PuljulaJ. TetriS. Head trauma with or without mild brain injury increases the risk of future traumatic death: A controlled prospective 15-year follow-up study.J. Neurotrauma201532201579158310.1089/neu.2014.3757
     [Google Scholar]
  113. ManleyG. GardnerA.J. SchneiderK.J. GuskiewiczK.M. BailesJ. CantuR.C. CastellaniR.J. TurnerM. JordanB.D. RandolphC. DvořákJ. HaydenK.A. TatorC.H. McCroryP. IversonG.L. A systematic review of potential long-term effects of sport-related concussion.Br. J. Sports Med.2017511296997710.1136/bjsports‑2017‑097791 28455362
     [Google Scholar]
  114. TaylorC.A. BellJ.M. BreidingM.J. XuL. Traumatic brain injury-related emergency department visits, hospitalizations, and deaths - United States, 2007 and 2013.MMWR Surveill. Summ.201766911610.15585/mmwr.ss6609a1 28301451
     [Google Scholar]
  115. ByersA.L. LiY. BarnesD.E. BoscardinW.J. PeltzC.B. YaffeK. TBI and risk of death in military veterans over 14 years: Injury severity, timing, and cause of death.J. Psychiatr. Res.202215620020510.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.09.035 36257114
     [Google Scholar]
  116. AlbrechtJ.S. Al KibriaG. Gruber-BaldiniA. MagazinerJ. Risk of mortality in individuals with hip fracture and traumatic brain injury.J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.201967112412710.1111/jgs.15661 30471090
     [Google Scholar]
  117. Harrison-FelixC.L. WhiteneckG.G. JhaA. DeVivoM.J. HammondF.M. HartD.M. Mortality over four decades after traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: A retrospective cohort study.Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil.20099091506151310.1016/j.apmr.2009.03.015 19735778
     [Google Scholar]
  118. FaillaM.D. ConleyY.P. WagnerA.K. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in traumatic brain injury-related mortality.Neurorehabil. Neural Repair2016301839310.1177/1545968315586465 25979196
     [Google Scholar]
  119. MunozM.J. KumarR.G. OhB.M. ConleyY.P. WangZ. FaillaM.D. WagnerA.K. Cerebrospinal fluid cortisol mediates brain-derived neurotrophic factor relationships to mortality after severe TBI: A prospective cohort study.Front. Mol. Neurosci.2017104410.3389/fnmol.2017.00044 28337122
     [Google Scholar]
  120. ByersA.L. LiY. BarnesD.E. SealK.H. BoscardinW.J. YaffeK. A national study of TBI and risk of suicide and unintended death by overdose and firearms.Brain Inj.202034332833410.1080/02699052.2019.1701708 31822136
     [Google Scholar]
  121. LuY.C. WuM.K. ZhangL. ZhangC.L. LuY.Y. WuC.H. Association between suicide risk and traumatic brain injury in adults: A population based cohort study.Postgrad. Med. J.202096114274775210.1136/postgradmedj‑2019‑136860 32015186
     [Google Scholar]
  122. FazelS. WolfA. PillasD. LichtensteinP. LångströmN. Suicide, fatal injuries, and other causes of premature mortality in patients with traumatic brain injury: A 41-year Swedish population study.JAMA Psychiatry201471332633310.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.3935 24430827
     [Google Scholar]
  123. GünakM.M. BarnesD.E. YaffeK. LiY. ByersA.L. Risk of suicide attempt in patients with recent diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment or dementia.JAMA Psychiatry202178665966610.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.0150 33760039
     [Google Scholar]
  124. GreerD.M. ShemieS.D. LewisA. TorranceS. VarelasP. GoldenbergF.D. BernatJ.L. SouterM. TopcuogluM.A. AlexandrovA.W. BaldisseriM. BleckT. CiterioG. DawsonR. HoppeA. JacobeS. ManaraA. NakagawaT.A. PopeT.M. SilvesterW. ThomsonD. Al RahmaH. BadenesR. BakerA.J. CernyV. ChangC. ChangT.R. GnedovskayaE. HanM.K. HoneybulS. JimenezE. KurodaY. LiuG. MallickU.K. MarquevichV. Mejia-MantillaJ. PiradovM. QuayyumS. ShresthaG.S. SuY. TimmonsS.D. TeitelbaumJ. VidettaW. ZirpeK. SungG. Determination of brain death/death by neurologic criteria.JAMA2020324111078109710.1001/jama.2020.11586 32761206
     [Google Scholar]
  125. AromatarioM. TorselloA. D’ErricoS. BertozziG. SessaF. CipolloniL. BaldariB. Traumatic epidural and subdural hematoma: Epidemiology, outcome, and dating.Medicina (Kaunas)202157212510.3390/medicina57020125 33535407
     [Google Scholar]
  126. ShojaniaK.G. BurtonE.C. The vanishing nonforensic autopsy.N. Engl. J. Med.2008358987387510.1056/NEJMp0707996 18305264
     [Google Scholar]
  127. Sieswerda-HoogendoornT. van RijnR.R. Current techniques in postmortem imaging with specific attention to paediatric applications.Pediatr. Radiol.201040214115210.1007/s00247‑009‑1486‑0 20013258
     [Google Scholar]
  128. ArthursO.J. TaylorA.M. SebireN.J. The less invasive perinatal autopsy: Current status and future directions.Fetal Matern. Med. Rev.2013242455910.1017/S0965539513000065
     [Google Scholar]
  129. ArthursO.J. HutchinsonJ.C. SebireN.J. Current issues in postmortem imaging of perinatal and forensic childhood deaths.Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol.2017131586610.1007/s12024‑016‑9821‑x 28083782
     [Google Scholar]
  130. AmpanoziG. HalbheerD. EbertL.C. ThaliM.J. HeldU. Postmortem imaging findings and cause of death determination compared with autopsy: A systematic review of diagnostic test accuracy and meta-analysis.Int. J. Legal Med.2020134132133710.1007/s00414‑019‑02140‑y 31455980
     [Google Scholar]
  131. HenningsenM.J. HarvingM.L. JacobsenC. VillaC. Fractures of the neuro-cranium: Sensitivity and specificity of post-mortem computed tomography compared with autopsy.Int. J. Legal Med.202213651379138910.1007/s00414‑022‑02779‑0 35084533
     [Google Scholar]
  132. HenningsenM.J. LarsenS.T. JacobsenC. VillaC. Sensitivity and specificity of post-mortem computed tomography in skull fracture detection-a systematic review and meta-analysis.Int. J. Legal Med.202213651363137710.1007/s00414‑022‑02803‑3 35286468
     [Google Scholar]
  133. CalderA.D. OffiahA.C. Foetal radiography for suspected skeletal dysplasia: Technique, normal appearances, diagnostic approach.Pediatr. Radiol.201545453654810.1007/s00247‑014‑3130‑x 25173408
     [Google Scholar]
  134. HsiehK.L.C. ZimmermanR.A. KaoH.W. ChenC.Y. Revisiting neuroimaging of abusive head trauma in infants and young children.AJR Am. J. Roentgenol.2015204594495210.2214/AJR.14.13228 25905928
     [Google Scholar]
  135. MartinA. PaddockM. JohnsC.S. SmithJ. RaghavanA. ConnollyD.J.A. OffiahA.C. Avoiding skull radiographs in infants with suspected inflicted injury who also undergo head CT: “A no-brainer?”.Eur. Radiol.20203031480148710.1007/s00330‑019‑06579‑w 31797078
     [Google Scholar]
  136. SharpS.R. PatelS.M. BrownR.E. LandesC. Head imaging in suspected non accidental injury in the paediatric population. In the advent of volumetric CT imaging, has the skull X-ray become redundant?Clin. Radiol.201873544945310.1016/j.crad.2017.11.027 29502881
     [Google Scholar]
  137. CulottaP.A. CroweJ.E. TranQ.A. JonesJ.Y. Mehollin-RayA.R. TranH.B. Donaruma-KwohM. DodgeC.T. CampE.A. CruzA.T. Performance of computed tomography of the head to evaluate for skull fractures in infants with suspected non-accidental trauma.Pediatr. Radiol.2017471748110.1007/s00247‑016‑3707‑7 27744559
     [Google Scholar]
  138. OrmanG. WagnerM.W. SeeburgD. ZamoraC.A. OshmyanskyA. TekesA. PorettiA. JalloG.I. HuismanT.A.G.M. BosemaniT. Pediatric skull fracture diagnosis: should 3D CT reconstructions be added as routine imaging?J. Neurosurg. Pediatr.201516442643110.3171/2015.3.PEDS1553 26186360
     [Google Scholar]
  139. NorbertiN. TonelliP. GiaconiC. NardiC. FocardiM. NesiG. MieleV. ColagrandeS. State of the art in post-mortem computed tomography: A review of current literature.Virchows Arch.2019475213915010.1007/s00428‑019‑02562‑4 30937612
     [Google Scholar]
  140. RobertsI.S.D. BenamoreR.E. BenbowE.W. LeeS.H. HarrisJ.N. JacksonA. MallettS. PatankarT. PeeblesC. RoobottomC. TraillZ.C. Post-mortem imaging as an alternative to autopsy in the diagnosis of adult deaths: A validation study.Lancet2012379981113614210.1016/S0140‑6736(11)61483‑9 22112684
     [Google Scholar]
  141. RuderT.D. HatchG.M. EbertL.C. FlachP.M. RossS. AmpanoziG. ThaliM.J. Whole body postmortem magnetic resonance angiography.J. Forensic Sci.201257377878210.1111/j.1556‑4029.2011.02037.x 22211886
     [Google Scholar]
  142. SchievanoS. SebireN.J. RobertsonN.J. TaylorA.M. ThayyilS. Reconstruction of fetal and infant anatomy using rapid prototyping of post-mortem MR images.Insights Imaging20101428128610.1007/s13244‑010‑0028‑5 22347922
     [Google Scholar]
  143. MondelloC. BaldinoG. BottariA. SapienzaD. PerriF. ArgoA. AsmundoA. VenturaS.E. The role of PMCT for the assessment of the cause of death in natural disaster (landslide and flood): A Sicilian experience.Int. J. Legal Med.2022136123724410.1007/s00414‑021‑02683‑z 34476607
     [Google Scholar]
  144. GrabherrS. EggerC. VilarinoR. CampanaL. JotterandM. DedouitF. Modern post-mortem imaging: An update on recent developments.Forensic Sci. Res.201722526410.1080/20961790.2017.1330738 30483621
     [Google Scholar]
  145. GershonA. LittleD.A. BallC.G. WilliamsA.S. Fatal secondary aortoduodenal fistula diagnosed with postmortem computed tomography angiography.Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol.202016351551810.1007/s12024‑020‑00256‑x 32394207
     [Google Scholar]
  146. ZechW.D. SchwendenerN. PerssonA. WarntjesM.J. JackowskiC. Postmortem MR quantification of the heart for characterization and differentiation of ischaemic myocardial lesions.Eur. Radiol.20152572067207310.1007/s00330‑014‑3582‑2 25591749
     [Google Scholar]
  147. MakinoY. AraiN. HoshiokaY. YoshidaM. KojimaM. HorikoshiT. MukaiH. IwaseH. Traumatic axonal injury revealed by postmortem magnetic resonance imaging: A case report.Leg. Med. (Tokyo)20193691610.1016/j.legalmed.2018.09.019 30312836
     [Google Scholar]
  148. MakinoY. KojimaM. YoshidaM. MotomuraA. InokuchiG. ChibaF. TorimitsuS. HoshiokaY. YamaguchiR. SaitoN. UrabeS. TsuneyaS. HorikoshiT. YajimaD. IwaseH. Postmortem CT and MRI findings of massive fat embolism.Int. J. Legal Med.2020134266967810.1007/s00414‑019‑02128‑8 31375910
     [Google Scholar]
  149. ChenY.J. Research development and application of virtopsy.Fa Yi Xue Za Zhi2014305360366 25735075
     [Google Scholar]
  150. BlokkerB.M. WeustinkA.C. WagensveldI.M. von der ThüsenJ.H. PezzatoA. DammersR. BakkerJ. RenkenN.S. den BakkerM.A. van KemenadeF.J. KrestinG.P. HuninkM.G.M. OosterhuisJ.W. Conventional autopsy versus minimally invasive autopsy with postmortem MRI, CT, and CT-guided biopsy: Comparison of diagnostic performance.Radiology2018289365866710.1148/radiol.2018180924 30251930
     [Google Scholar]
  151. JiaY.Q. JinG.D. TianM.H. Effect of corpse cryopreservation on forensic pathological identification.Fa Yi Xue Za Zhi2019351747710.12116/j.issn.1004‑5619.2019.01.014
     [Google Scholar]
  152. NajemD. RennieK. Ribecco-LutkiewiczM. Traumatic brain injury: Classification, models, and markers.Biochem. Cell Biol.201896439140610.1139/bcb‑2016‑0160
     [Google Scholar]
  153. ThomasI. DickensA.M. PostiJ.P. CzeiterE. DubergD. SiniojaT. KråkströmM. Retel HelmrichI.R.A. WangK.K.W. MaasA.I.R. SteyerbergE.W. MenonD.K. TenovuoO. HyötyläinenT. BükiA. OrešičM. ÅkerlundC. AmreinK. AndelicN. AndreassenL. AnkeA. AntoniA. AudibertG. AzouviP. AzzoliniM.L. BartelsR. BarzóP. BeauvaisR. BeerR. BellanderB-M. BelliA. BenaliH. BerardinoM. BerettaL. BlaabjergM. BraggeP. BrazinovaA. BrinckV. BrookerJ. BrorssonC. BullingerM. CabeleiraM. CaccioppolaA. CalappiE. CalviM.R. CameronP. LozanoG.C. CarbonaraM. CavalloS. ChevallardG. ChieregatoA. CiterioG. ClusmannH. CoburnM. ColesJ. CooperJ.D. CorreiaM. ČovićA. CurryN. CzeiterE. CzosnykaM. Dahyot-FizelierC. DarkP. DawesH. De KeyserV. DegosV. CorteF.D. den BoogertH. DepreitereB. ĐilvesiĐ. DixitA. DonoghueE. DreierJ. DulièreG-L. ErcoleA. EsserP. EzerE. FabriciusM. FeiginV.L. FoksK. FrisvoldS. FurmanovA. GagliardoP. GalanaudD. GantnerD. GaoG. GeorgeP. GhuysenA. GigaL. GlockerB. GolubovicJ. GomezP.A. GratzJ. GravesteijnB. GrossiF. GruenR.L. GuptaD. HaagsmaJ.A. HaitsmaI. HelbokR. HelsethE. HortonL. HuijbenJ. HutchinsonP.J. JacobsB. JankowskiS. JarrettM. JiangJ. JohnsonF. JonesK. KaranM. KoliasA.G. KompanjeE. KondziellaD. KornaropoulosE. KoskinenL-O. KovácsN. KowarkA. LagaresA. LanyonL. LaureysS. LeckyF. LedouxD. LeferingR. LegrandV. LejeuneA. LeviL. LightfootR. LingsmaH. MaasA.I.R. Castaño-LeónA.M. MaegeleM. MajdanM. ManaraA. ManleyG. MartinoC. MaréchalH. MatternJ. McMahonC. MeleghB. MenovskyT. MikolicA. MissetB. MuraleedharanV. MurrayL. NegruA. NelsonD. NewcombeV. NieboerD. NyirádiJ. OlubukolaO. OrtolanoF. PalotieA. ParizelP.M. PayenJ-F. PereraN. PerlbargV. PersonaP. PeulW. Piippo-KarjalainenA. PirinenM. PlesH. PolinderS. PomposoI. PostiJ.P. PuybassetL. RadoiA. RagauskasA. RajR. RambadagallaM. RhodesJ. RichardsonS. RichterS. RipattiS. RockaS. RoeC. RoiseO. RosandJ. RosenfeldJ.V. RosenlundC. RosenthalG. RossaintR. RossiS. RueckertD. RusnákM. SahuquilloJ. SakowitzO. Sanchez-PorrasR. SandorJ. SchäferN. SchmidtS. SchoechlH. SchoonmanG. SchouR.F. SchwendenweinE. SewaltC. SkandsenT. SmielewskiP. SorinolaA. StamatakisE. StanworthS. StevensR. StewartW. StocchettiN. SundströmN. TakalaR. TamásV. TamosuitisT. TaylorM.S. Te AoB. TheadomA. ThomasM. TibboelD. TimmersM. ToliasC. TrapaniT. TudoraC.M. UnterbergA. VajkoczyP. VallanceS. ValeinisE. VámosZ. van der JagtM. Van der SteenG. van der NaaltJ. van DijckJ.T.J.M. van EssenT.A. Van HeckeW. van HeugtenC. Van PraagD. VyvereT.V. van WijkR.P.J. VargioluA. VegaE. VeltK. VerheydenJ. VespaP.M. VikA. VilcinisR. VoloviciV. von SteinbüchelN. VoormolenD. VulekovicP. WiegersE. WilliamsG. WilsonL. WinzeckS. WolfS. YangZ. YlénP. YounsiA. ZeilerF.A. ZelinkovaV. ZiverteA. ZoerleT. Serum metabolome associated with severity of acute traumatic brain injury.Nat. Commun.2022131254510.1038/s41467‑022‑30227‑5 35538079
     [Google Scholar]
  154. UndénJ. IngebrigtsenT. RomnerB. Scandinavian guidelines for initial management of minimal, mild and moderate head injuries in adults: An evidence and consensus-based update.BMC Med.20131115010.1186/1741‑7015‑11‑50 23432764
     [Google Scholar]
  155. OrisC. KahouadjiS. DurifJ. BouvierD. SapinV. S100B, actor and biomarker of mild traumatic brain injury.Int. J. Mol. Sci.2023247660210.3390/ijms24076602 37047574
     [Google Scholar]
  156. BelseyS.L. FlanaganR.J. Postmortem biochemistry: Current applications.J. Forensic Leg. Med.201641495710.1016/j.jflm.2016.04.011 27131037
     [Google Scholar]
  157. BreitlingB. BrunkhorstR. VerhoffM. FoerchC. Post-mortem serum concentrations of GFAP correlate with agony time but do not indicate a primary cerebral cause of death.PLoS One20181310e020532310.1371/journal.pone.0205323 30304049
     [Google Scholar]
  158. OlczakM. KwiatkowskaM. Niderla-BielińskaJ. ChutorańskiD. TarkaS. Wierzba-BobrowiczT. Brain-originated peptides as possible biochemical markers of traumatic brain injury in cerebrospinal fluid post-mortem examination.Folia Neuropathol.20185629710310.5114/fn.2018.76613 30509029
     [Google Scholar]
  159. OndruschkaB. SieberM. KirstenH. FrankeH. DreßlerJ. Measurement of cerebral biomarkers proving traumatic brain injuries in post-mortem body fluids.J. Neurotrauma201835172044205510.1089/neu.2017.5441 29732941
     [Google Scholar]
  160. OndruschkaB. WoydtL. BernhardM. FrankeH. KirstenH. LöfflerS. PohlersD. HammerN. DreßlerJ. Post-mortem in situ stability of serum markers of cerebral damage and acute phase response.Int. J. Legal Med.2019133387188110.1007/s00414‑018‑1925‑2 30167776
     [Google Scholar]
  161. TrautzF. FrankeH. BohnertS. HammerN. MüllerW. StassartR. TseR. ZwirnerJ. DreßlerJ. OndruschkaB. Survival-time dependent increase in neuronal IL-6 and astroglial GFAP expression in fatally injured human brain tissue.Sci. Rep.2019911177110.1038/s41598‑019‑48145‑w 31417126
     [Google Scholar]
  162. SieberM. DreßlerJ. FrankeH. PohlersD. OndruschkaB. Post-mortem biochemistry of NSE and S100B: A supplemental tool for detecting a lethal traumatic brain injury?J. Forensic Leg. Med.201855657310.1016/j.jflm.2018.02.016 29471249
     [Google Scholar]
  163. OlczakM. PoniatowskiŁ.A. Niderla-BielińskaJ. KwiatkowskaM. ChutorańskiD. TarkaS. Wierzba-BobrowiczT. Concentration of microtubule associated protein tau (MAPT) in urine and saliva as a potential biomarker of traumatic brain injury in relationship with blood–brain barrier disruption in postmortem examination.Forensic Sci. Int.2019301283610.1016/j.forsciint.2019.05.010 31128406
     [Google Scholar]
  164. KousiC. LampriE. VoulgarisS. VougiouklakisT. GalaniV. MitselouA. Expression of orexin-A (hypocretin-A) in the hypothalamus after traumatic brain injury: A postmortem evaluation.Forensic Sci. Int.202132711096110.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110961 34454377
     [Google Scholar]
  165. OlczakM. PoniatowskiŁ. KwiatkowskaM. SamojłowiczD. TarkaS. Wierzba-BobrowiczT. Immunolocalization of dynein, dynactin, and kinesin in the cerebral tissue as a possible supplemental diagnostic tool for traumatic brain injury in postmortem examination.Folia Neuropathol.2019571516210.5114/fn.2019.83831 31038188
     [Google Scholar]
  166. ZwirnerJ. BohnertS. FrankeH. GarlandJ. HammerN. MöbiusD. TseR. OndruschkaB. Assessing protein biomarkers to detect lethal acute traumatic brain injuries in cerebrospinal fluid.Biomolecules20211111157710.3390/biom11111577 34827575
     [Google Scholar]
  167. ZwirnerJ. AndersS. BohnertS. BurkhardtR. Da BroiU. HammerN. PohlersD. TseR. OndruschkaB. Screening for fatal traumatic brain injuries in cerebrospinal fluid using blood-validated CK and CK-MB immunoassays.Biomolecules2021117106110.3390/biom11071061 34356685
     [Google Scholar]
  168. GaoT.L. YuanX.T. YangD. DaiH.L. WangW.J. PengX. ShaoH.J. JinZ.F. FuZ.J. Expression of HMGB1 and RAGE in rat and human brains after traumatic brain injury.J. Trauma201272364364910.1097/TA.0b013e31823c54a6 22491548
     [Google Scholar]
  169. KobekM. JankowskiZ. SzalaJ. Gąszczyk-OżarowskiZ. PałaszA. SkowronekR. Time-related morphometric studies on CD34 protein expression in the cerebral blood vessels after fatal brain contusions.Folia Neuropathol.201856318719510.5114/fn.2018.78699 30509040
     [Google Scholar]
  170. NeriM. FratiA. TurillazziE. CantatoreS. CipolloniL. Di PaoloM. FratiP. La RussaR. MaieseA. ScopettiM. SanturroA. SessaF. ZampareseR. FineschiV. Immunohistochemical evaluation of aquaporin-4 and its correlation with CD68, IBA-1, HIF-1α, GFAP, and CD15 expressions in fatal traumatic brain injury.Int. J. Mol. Sci.20181911354410.3390/ijms19113544 30423808
     [Google Scholar]
  171. OerterS. FörsterC. BohnertM. Validation of sodium/glucose cotransporter proteins in human brain as a potential marker for temporal narrowing of the trauma formation.Int. J. Legal Med.201913341107111410.1007/s00414‑018‑1893‑6 30073510
     [Google Scholar]
  172. ZwirnerJ. KulakofskyR. FitzekA. SchröderA.S. BohnertS. FrankeH. RennéT. TseR. OndruschkaB. Forensic biomarkers of lethal traumatic brain injury.Int. J. Legal Med.2022136387188610.1007/s00414‑022‑02785‑2 35226180
     [Google Scholar]
  173. PinchiE. FratiA. CipolloniL. AromatarioM. GattoV. La RussaR. PesceA. SanturroA. FraschettiF. FratiP. FineschiV. Clinical-pathological study on β-APP, IL-1β, GFAP, NFL, Spectrin II, 8OHdG, TUNEL, miR-21, miR-16, miR-92 expressions to verify DAI-diagnosis, grade and prognosis.Sci. Rep.201881238710.1038/s41598‑018‑20699‑1 29402984
     [Google Scholar]
  174. MacKenzieJ.M. Axonal injury in stroke.Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol.201536317217510.1097/PAF.0000000000000166 26266889
     [Google Scholar]
  175. WoydtL. BernhardM. KirstenH. BurkhardtR. HammerN. GriesA. DreßlerJ. OndruschkaB. Intra-individual alterations of serum markers routinely used in forensic pathology depending on increasing post-mortem interval.Sci. Rep.2018811281110.1038/s41598‑018‑31252‑5 30143737
     [Google Scholar]
  176. ShangY. WangY. GuoY. RenL. ZhangX. WangS. ZhangC. CaiJ. Analysis of the risk of traumatic brain injury and evaluation neurogranin and myelin basic protein as potential biomarkers of traumatic brain injury in postmortem examination.Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol.202218328829810.1007/s12024‑022‑00459‑4 35201602
     [Google Scholar]
  177. BohnertS. WirthC. SchmitzW. TrellaS. MonoranuC.M. OndruschkaB. BohnertM. Myelin basic protein and neurofilament H in postmortem cerebrospinal fluid as surrogate markers of fatal traumatic brain injury.Int. J. Legal Med.202113541525153510.1007/s00414‑021‑02606‑y 33895854
     [Google Scholar]
  178. BouttéA.M. HookV. ThangaveluB. Penetrating traumatic brain injury triggers dysregulation of cathepsin B protein levels independent of cysteine protease activity in brain and cerebral spinal fluid.J. Neurotrauma202037131574158610.1089/neu.2019.6537
     [Google Scholar]
  179. HayashiT. AgoK. NakamaeT. HigoE. OgataM. Two different immunostaining patterns of beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) may distinguish traumatic from nontraumatic axonal injury.Int. J. Legal Med.201512951085109010.1007/s00414‑015‑1245‑8 26249371
     [Google Scholar]
  180. HicksC. DhimanA. BarrymoreC. Traumatic brain injury biomarkers, simulations and kinetics.Bioengineering.202291161210.3390/bioengineering9110612
     [Google Scholar]
  181. AckermannM. VerledenS.E. KuehnelM. HaverichA. WelteT. LaengerF. VanstapelA. WerleinC. StarkH. TzankovA. LiW.W. LiV.W. MentzerS.J. JonigkD. Pulmonary vascular endothelialitis, thrombosis, and angiogenesis in COVID-19.N. Engl. J. Med.2020383212012810.1056/NEJMoa2015432 32437596
     [Google Scholar]
  182. MarshallA.G. NeikirkK. StephensD.C. VangL. VueZ. BeasleyH.K. CrabtreeA. ScudeseE. LopezE.G. ShaoB. KrystofiakE. RutledgeS. DavisJ. MurrayS.A. DamoS.M. KattiP. HintonA.Jr Serial block face‐scanning electron microscopy as a burgeoning technology.Adv. Biol.202378230013910.1002/adbi.202300139 37246236
     [Google Scholar]
  183. GoossensE. DeblockL. CaboorL. EyndenD.V. JosipovicI. IsaacuraP.R. MaksimovaE. Van ImpeM. BonninA. SegersP. CornillieP. BooneM.N. Van DriesscheI. De SpiegelaereW. De RooJ. SipsP. De BuysserK. From corrosion casting to virtual dissection: Contrast‐enhanced vascular imaging using hafnium oxide nanocrystals.Small Methods2024e2301499230149910.1002/smtd.202301499 38200600
     [Google Scholar]
  184. SultanI. RamsteM. PeletierP. HemanthakumarK.A. RamanujamD. TirronenA. von WrightY. AntilaS. SaharinenP. EklundL. MervaalaE. Ylä-HerttualaS. EngelhardtS. KiveläR. AlitaloK. Contribution of VEGF-B-induced endocardial endothelial cell lineage in physiological versus pathological cardiac hypertrophy.Circ. Res.2024134111465148210.1161/CIRCRESAHA.123.324136 38655691
     [Google Scholar]
  185. AlbanoG.D. StassiC. ArgoA. ZerboS. An overview on the use of miRNAs as possible forensic biomarkers for the diagnosis of traumatic brain injury.Int. J. Mol. Sci.2023247650310.3390/ijms24076503 37047473
     [Google Scholar]
  186. GlynnC.L. Potential applications of microRNA profiling to forensic investigations.RNA20202611910.1261/rna.072173.119 31658993
     [Google Scholar]
  187. RocchiA. ChitiE. MaieseA. TurillazziE. SpinettiI. MicroRNAs: An update of applications in forensic science.Diagnostics (Basel)20201113210.3390/diagnostics11010032 33375374
     [Google Scholar]
  188. SessaF. MagliettaF. BertozziG. SalernoM. Di MizioG. MessinaG. MontanaA. RicciP. PomaraC. Human brain injury and miRNAs: An experimental study.Int. J. Mol. Sci.2019207154610.3390/ijms20071546 30934805
     [Google Scholar]
  189. PennisiG. TorrisiM. CocimanoG. EspositoM. SalernoM. SessaF. Vitality markers in forensic investigations: A literature review.Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol.202219110311610.1007/s12024‑022‑00551‑9 36331706
     [Google Scholar]
  190. PolitoF. FamàF. OteriR. RaffaG. VitaG. ContiA. DanieleS. MacaioneV. PassalacquaM. CardaliS. Di GiorgioR.M. GioffrèM. AngileriF.F. GermanòA. AguennouzM.H. Circulating miRNAs expression as potential biomarkers of mild traumatic brain injury.Mol. Biol. Rep.20204742941294910.1007/s11033‑020‑05386‑7 32219772
     [Google Scholar]
  191. O’ConnellG.C. SmothersC.G. WinkelmanC. Bioinformatic analysis of brain-specific miRNAs for identification of candidate traumatic brain injury blood biomarkers.Brain Inj.202034796597410.1080/02699052.2020.1764102 32497449
     [Google Scholar]
  192. YangY. WangY. LiP. BaiF. LiuC. HuangX. Serum exosomes miR-206 and miR-549a-3p as potential biomarkers of traumatic brain injury.Sci. Rep.20241411008210.1038/s41598‑024‑60827‑8 38698242
     [Google Scholar]
  193. BoninS. D’ErricoS. MedeotC. MoreschiC. CiglieriS.S. PeruchM. ConcatoM. AzzaliniE. PreviderèC. FattoriniP. Evaluation of a set of miRNAs in 26 cases of fatal traumatic brain injuries.Int. J. Mol. Sci.202324131083610.3390/ijms241310836 37446013
     [Google Scholar]
  194. OlsenC.M. CorriganJ.D. Does traumatic brain injury cause risky substance use or substance use disorder?Biol. Psychiatry202291542143710.1016/j.biopsych.2021.07.013 34561027
     [Google Scholar]
  195. WeilZ.M. CorriganJ.D. KarelinaK. Alcohol Use Disorder and Traumatic Brain Injury.Alcohol Res.2018392171180 31198656
     [Google Scholar]
  196. BjorkJ.M. GrantS.J. Does traumatic brain injury increase risk for substance abuse?J. Neurotrauma20092671077108210.1089/neu.2008.0849 19203230
     [Google Scholar]
  197. EyerM.M. RenierC.M. WoehrleT.A. VogelL.E. ConwayP.G. McCartyC.A. Alcohol use at the time of traumatic brain injury: Screening and brief intervention in a community hospital.J. Trauma Nurs.201724211612410.1097/JTN.0000000000000275 28272186
     [Google Scholar]
  198. MathiasJ.L. OsbornA.J. Impact of day-of-injury alcohol consumption on outcomes after traumatic brain injury: A meta-analysis.Neuropsychol. Rehabil.2018286997101810.1080/09602011.2016.1224190 27585824
     [Google Scholar]
  199. JohnstonJ.J.E. McGovernS.J. Alcohol related falls: an interesting pattern of injuries.Emerg. Med. J.200421218518810.1136/emj.2003.006130 14988344
     [Google Scholar]
  200. ChikritzhsT. LivingstonM. Alcohol and the risk of injury.Nutrients2021138277710.3390/nu13082777 34444939
     [Google Scholar]
  201. PostiJ.P. SankinenM. SipiläJ.O.T. RuuskanenJ.O. RinneJ. RautavaP. KytöV. Fatal traumatic brain injuries during 13 years of successive alcohol tax increases in Finland – a nationwide population-based registry study.Sci. Rep.201991541910.1038/s41598‑019‑41913‑8 30931989
     [Google Scholar]
  202. ŢolescuR.Ş. ZorilăM.V. ŞerbănescuM.S. KamalC. ZorilăG.L. DumitruI. FlorouC. MogoantăL. VăduvaI.A. StancaL. ZăvoiR.E. Severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) - a seven-year comparative study in a Department of Forensic Medicine.Rom. J. Morphol. Embryol.20206119510310.47162/RJME.61.1.10 32747899
     [Google Scholar]
  203. WangH. YuX. XuG. XuG. GaoG. XuX. Alcoholism and traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage: an experimental study on vascular morphology and biomechanics.J. Trauma2011701E6E1210.1097/TA.0b013e3181cda3b9 21217473
     [Google Scholar]
  204. LaiX. YuX. QianH. WeiL. LvJ. XuX. Chronic alcoholism-mediated impairment in the medulla oblongata: A mechanism of alcohol-related mortality in traumatic brain injury?Cell Biochem. Biophys.20136731049105710.1007/s12013‑013‑9603‑y 23546937
     [Google Scholar]
  205. ParkerS.L. SaxenaM. GowardmanJ. LipmanJ. MyburghJ. RobertsJ.A. Population pharmacokinetics of intravenous paracetamol in critically ill patients with traumatic brain injury.J. Crit. Care201847152010.1016/j.jcrc.2018.05.016 29883885
     [Google Scholar]
  206. EmpeyP.E. McNamaraP.J. YoungB. RosboltM.B. HattonJ. Cyclosporin A disposition following acute traumatic brain injury.J. Neurotrauma200623110911610.1089/neu.2006.23.109 16430377
     [Google Scholar]
  207. EmpeyP.E. Velez de MendizabalN. BellM.J. BiesR.R. AndersonK.B. KochanekP.M. AdelsonP.D. PoloyacS.M. Therapeutic hypothermia decreases phenytoin elimination in children with traumatic brain injury.Crit. Care Med.201341102379238710.1097/CCM.0b013e318292316c 23896831
     [Google Scholar]
  208. ChisholmK.M. HarruffR.C. Elderly deaths due to ground-level falls.Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol.201031435035410.1097/PAF.0b013e3181f69c87 20938326
     [Google Scholar]
  209. LavoieA. RatteS. ClasD. DemersJ. MooreL. MartinM. BergeronE. Preinjury warfarin use among elderly patients with closed head injuries in a trauma center.J. Trauma200456480280710.1097/01.TA.0000066183.02177.AF 15187746
     [Google Scholar]
  210. PieracciF.M. EachempatiS.R. ShouJ. HydoL.J. BarieP.S. Use of long-term anticoagulation is associated with traumatic intracranial hemorrhage and subsequent mortality in elderly patients hospitalized after falls: Analysis of the New York State Administrative Database.J. Trauma200763351952410.1097/TA.0b013e31812e519b 18073595
     [Google Scholar]
  211. LauniainenT. SajantilaA. RasanenI. VuoriE. OjanperäI. Adverse interaction of warfarin and paracetamol: Evidence from a post-mortem study.Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.20106619710310.1007/s00228‑009‑0727‑3 19779704
     [Google Scholar]
  212. HollowellJ. MeierC.R. HaefeliW.E. GasseC. Drug interactions and risk of acute bleeding leading to hospitalisation or death in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation treated with warfarin.Thromb. Haemost.200594953754310.1160/TH05‑03‑0166 16268469
     [Google Scholar]
  213. WittkowskyA.K. BoccuzziS.J. WogenJ. WygantG. PatelP. HauchO. Frequency of concurrent use of warfarin with potentially interacting drugs.Pharmacotherapy200424121668167410.1592/phco.24.17.1668.52338 15585436
     [Google Scholar]
  214. FeldsteinA.C. SmithD.H. PerrinN. YangX. SimonS.R. KrallM. SittigD.F. DitmerD. PlattR. SoumeraiS.B. Reducing warfarin medication interactions: an interrupted time series evaluation.Arch. Intern. Med.200616691009101510.1001/archinte.166.9.1009 16682575
     [Google Scholar]
  215. SnaithA. PughL. SimpsonC.R. McLayJ.S. The potential for interaction between warfarin and coprescribed medication: a retrospective study in primary care.Am. J. Cardiovasc. Drugs20088320721210.2165/00129784‑200808030‑00007 18533741
     [Google Scholar]
  216. Di NunnoN. EspositoM. ArgoA. SalernoM. SessaF. Pharmacogenetics and forensic toxicology: A new step towards a multidisciplinary approach.Toxics202191129210.3390/toxics9110292 34822683
     [Google Scholar]
  217. AdamsS.M. ConleyY.P. WagnerA.K. JhaR.M. ClarkR.S.B. PoloyacS.M. KochanekP.M. EmpeyP.E. The pharmaco-genomics of severe traumatic brain injury.Pharmacogenomics201718151413142510.2217/pgs‑2017‑0073 28975867
     [Google Scholar]
  218. AlyS.M. HennartB. GaulierJ.M. AllorgeD. Effect of CYP2D6, 2C19, and 3A4 phenoconversion in drug-related deaths.Toxics202412426010.3390/toxics12040260 38668482
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/cn/10.2174/011570159X352125241031030110
Loading
Advances and Challenges in Traumatic Brain Injury from a Forensic Perspective
Curr. Neuropharmacol. 23, 1726 (2025); https://doi.org/10.2174/011570159X352125241031030110
/content/journals/cn/10.2174/011570159X352125241031030110
/content/journals/cn/10.2174/011570159X352125241031030110
Loading

Data & Media loading...


  • Article Type:     Review Article
Keyword(s): alcoholism; cause of death; cognitive impairment; forensic science; pathogenesis; Traumatic brain injury

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test