Current Molecular Pharmacology - Volume 9, Issue 2, 2016

The fine regulation of signalling cascades is a key event required to maintain the appropriate functional properties of a cell when a given stimulus triggers specific biological responses. In this sense, cumulative experimental evidence during the last years has shown that high molecular weight immunophilins possess a fundamental importance in the regulation of many of these processes. It was first discovered that TPR-domain immunophilins such as FKBP51 and FKBP52 play a cardinal role, usually in an antagonistic fashion, in the regulation of several members of the steroid receptor family via its interaction with the heat-shock protein of 90-kDa, Hsp90. These Hsp90-associated cochaperones form a functional unit with the molecular chaperone influencing ligand binding capacity, receptor trafficking, and hormone-dependent transcriptional activity. Recently, it was demonstrated that the same immunophilins are also able to regulate the NF-kB signalling cascade in an Hsp90 independent manner. In this article we analize these properties and discuss the relevance of this novel regulatory pathway in the context of the pleiotropic actions managed by NF-kB in several cell types and tissues.

Steroid hormone receptors are ligand-dependent transcription factors that require the dynamic, ordered assembly of multimeric chaperone complexes to reach a functional conformation. Heat shock protein (Hsp) 70 and Hsp90 serve as the central chaperones that mediate this process in conjunction with a variety of co-chaperones. Many of these cochaperones represent potential therapeutic targets for the disruption of Hsp90 client protein function. FKBP52 is an Hsp90-associated co-chaperone that has emerged as a promising therapeutic candidate due to its functional specificity for a small subset of Hsp90 client proteins including androgen (AR), glucocorticoid (GR), and progesterone (PR) receptors. Given its Hsp90-client protein specificity, the targeting of FKBP52 should be more specific and less toxic than the Hsp90- targeting drugs. Additionally, the fkbp52-deficient mice display specific phenotypes related to androgen, progesterone, and glucocorticoid insensitivity suggesting minimal off-target effects. Finally, the fact that FKBP52 is already a validated target of the clinically approved immunosuppressive drug, FK506 (Tacrolimus), indicates that FKBP52 is a “druggable” protein. Thus, the development of FKBP52-specific small molecule inhibitors is predicted to be a highly targeted strategy with potential for the treatment of any disease that is dependent on a functional AR, GR, and/or PR signaling pathway. Much progress has been made in understanding the residues and domains critical for FKBP52 function. The proline-rich loop overhanging the FKBP52 FK1 catalytic domain is functionally important and likely represents an interaction surface within the receptor-chaperone complex. Thus, the targeting of FKBP52 proline-rich loop interactions is the most attractive therapeutic approach to disrupt FKBP52 regulation of receptor activity in steroid hormone receptor-dependent physiology and disease.

The immunophilin FK506 binding protein 51 (FKBP51) has emerged as one of the most intensely investigated proteins in stress-related mental disorders. It was originally characterized as Hsp90 cochaperone and part of the receptor-chaperone heterocomplex that governs the activity of steroid receptors. It turned out that the presence of FKBP51 in this heterocomplex leads to diminished activity of the corticosteroid receptors. In particular, based on its inhibitory action on the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), FKBP51 was included in a candidate gene approach to discover gene polymorphisms that might be relevant for the development and treatment of major depression. The discovery that polymorphisms in the gene coding for FKBP51 were linked to the treatment response of depressed patients intensified the research on the role of FKBP51 in stress-related diseases worldwide. It has become evident that FKBP51 is not only a regulator of GR action, but also a GR target. The function of this ultrashort intracellular feedback loop is critically important for cellular and physiological stress regulation as it does not only calibrate the function of GR, but also the levels of FKBP51. Given the pleiotropic functions of FKBP51, its levels might be equally important for mental disorders as GR function and hence for the development of potential FKBP51 drug targets.

FKBP51 (FKBP5 Official Symbol) is large molecular weight member of the FK506 binding protein family, a subfamily of the immunophilin proteins. FKBP51 exerts multiple biological functions in the cell, including modulation of steroid hormone response, immune regulation, cell proliferation, regulation of pAkt levels and control of NF-ΚB activation. Several lines of evidence support a role for this protein in cancer biology, especially in resistance to chemo- and radio-therapy. Recent research studies highlighted functions of FKBP51 in promoting the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) transdifferentiation program in melanoma. This process, which is classically regulated by Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)-β, enables cancer cells to disseminate from primary tumors and spread to distant locations, acquiring resistance to therapy and self-renewal capability. This last, in turn, is crucial to their subsequent expansion at sites of dissemination. The aim of the present article is to review recent literature data that involve FKBP51 in the mechanisms that switch the TGF-β from a tumor suppressor to a pro-metastatic invader.

Cyclophilins belong to a group of proteins that possess peptidyl prolyl isomerase activity and catalyse the cis-trans conversion of proline peptide bonds. Cyclophilin members play important roles in protein folding and as molecular chaperones, in addition to a well-established role as host factors required for completion of the virus life cycle. Members of the cyclophilin family are overexpressed in a range of human malignancies including hepatocellular cancer, pancreatic cancer, nonsmall cell lung cancer, gastric cancer, colorectal cancer and glioblastoma multiforme, however, their precise role in tumourigenesis remains unclear. In recent years, mounting evidence supports a role for prolyl isomerisation during mammalian cell division; a process with striking similarity to plasma membrane remodelling during virus replication. Here, we summarise our current understanding of the role of cyclophilins in cancer. We review the function of cyclophilins during mammalian cell division and during HIV-1 infection, and highlight common processes involving members of the ESCRT and Rab GTPase families.

Peptidyl prolyl isomerases (PPIases) are proteins belonging to the immunophilin family and are characterised by their cis-trans isomerization activity at the X-Pro peptide bond, in addition to their tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domain, important for interaction with the molecular chaperone, Hsp90. Due to this unique structure these proteins are able to facilitate protein-protein interactions which can impact significantly on a range of cellular processes such as cell signalling, differentiation, cell cycle progression, metabolic activity and apoptosis. Malfunction and/or dysregulation of most members of this class of proteins promotes cellular damage and tissue/organ failure, predisposing to ageing and age-related diseases. Many individual genes within the PPIase family are associated with several age-related diseases including cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), atherosclerosis, type II diabetes mellitus (T2D), chronic kidney disease (CDK), neurodegeneration, cancer and age-related macular degeneration (AMD), in addition to the ageing process itself. This review will focus on the different roles of PPIases, and their therapeutic/ biomarker potential in these age-related vascular diseases.