Current Drug Delivery - Volume 11, Issue 4, 2014

Anticancer therapeutic research aims to improve clinical management of the disease through the development of strategies that involve currently-relevant treatment options and targeted delivery. Tumour-specific and -targeted delivery of compounds to the site of malignancy allows for enhanced cellular uptake, increased therapeutic benefit with high intratumoural drug concentrations, and decreased systemic exposure. Due to the upregulation of transferrin receptor expression in a wide variety of cancers, its function and its highly efficient recycling pathway, strategies involving the selective targeting of the receptor are well documented. Direct conjugation and immunotoxin studies using the transferrin peptide or anti-transferrin receptor antibodies as the targeting moiety have established the capacity to enhance cellular uptake, cross the blood brain barrier, limit systemic toxicity and reverse multi-drug resistance. Limitations in direct conjugation, including the difficulty in linking an adequate amount of therapeutic compound to the ligand or antibody have identified the requirement to develop novel delivery methods. The application of nanoparticulate theory in the development of functional drug delivery systems has proven to be most promising, with the ability to selectively modify size-dependent properties and surface chemistry. The transferrin modification on a range of nanoparticle formulations enhances selective cellular uptake through transferrin-mediated processes, and increases therapeutic benefit through the ability to encapsulate high concentrations of relevant drug to the tumour site. Although ineffective in crossing the blood brain barrier in its free form, chemotherapeutic compounds including doxorubicin, may be loaded into transferrin-conjugated nanocarriers and impart cytotoxic effects in glioma cells in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, transferrin-targeted nanoparticles may be used in selective diagnostic applications with enhanced selectivity and sensitivity. Four transferrin-modified nano-based drug delivery systems are currently in early phases of human clinical trials. Despite the collective promise, inconsistencies in some studies have exposed some limitations in current formulations and the difficulty in translating preliminary studies into clinically-relevant therapeutic options. The main objective of this review is to investigate the development of transferrin targeted nano-based drug delivery systems in order to establish the use of transferrin as a cancer-targeted moiety, and to ultimately evaluate the progression of cancer therapeutic strategies for future research.

Almost 200 million people worldwide are found to be affected by Diabetes mellitus (DM). DM is a metabolic disorder which occurs due to reduced insulin action and/or insulin secretion in the body. Reduced or inactive insulin results in imbalanced food metabolism. With the progression of disease, pathological changes like nephropathy, retinopathy and cardiovascular complications start occurring in the body. DM is mainly categorized into 2 types: type 1 DM and type 2 DM. Type 1 is generally treated through insulin replacement therapy. Type 2 DM is treated with oral hypoglycemics. Oral hypoglycemics are classified into 5 types: sulfonylureas, biguanides, α-glucosidase inhibitors, meglitinide analogues and thiazolidinediones. Conventional dosage forms of most of these drugs bear some drawbacks such as frequent dosing, short half live, and low bioavailability. Therefore, to alleviate the drawbacks associated with conventional dosage forms, efforts have been made in the area of novel and controlled drug delivery system for oral hypoglycemics. Present review highlights various novel and controlled drug delivery systems that have been investigated by different researchers for achieving sustained and controlled drug delivery of oral hypoglycemics and for overcoming the limitations related with the conventional dosage forms of oral hypoglycemics.

With an ageing population and increasing prevalence of central-nervous system (CNS) disorders new approaches are required to sustain the development and successful delivery of therapeutics into the brain and CNS. CNS drug delivery is challenging due to the impermeable nature of the brain microvascular endothelial cells that form the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and which prevent the entry of a wide range of therapeutics into the brain. This review examines the role intranasal delivery may play in achieving direct brain delivery, for small molecular weight drugs, macromolecular therapeutics and cell-based therapeutics, by exploitation of the olfactory and trigeminal nerve pathways. This approach is thought to deliver drugs into the brain and CNS through bypassing the BBB. Details of the mechanism of transfer of administrated therapeutics, the pathways that lead to brain deposition, with a specific focus on therapeutic pharmacokinetics, and examples of successful CNS delivery will be explored.

The present research aimed at developing an injection-free nanoparticulated formulation in multiple emulsion form, for oral delivery of insulin, which otherwise undergoes degradation in the gastric environment if administered orally. Insulin-polymeric nanoparticles were prepared using layer by layer (LbL) adsorption method and incorporated into an emulsion to form a nanoparticulated multiple emulsion. Using 0.6 M sodium chloride, the insulin nanoaggregates of 300-400 nm size were obtained about a yield of 94%. The characteristics of a representative nanoparticle were as follows: particle size - 391.9±0.41 nm, polydispersity index -0.425, zeta potential- +20.6 mv, encapsulation efficiency- 86.7±1.42% and percentage entrapment efficiency of the insulin-polymeric nanoparticles in the inner aqueous phase of emulsion was 84.6%. The FT-IR analysis confirms that there were no drug interactions with the polymers. Stability analysis carried out for 3 months at 8-40 °C, showed only minor changes at the end period. The release kinetics of the nanoparticulated multiple emulsion at pH 7.4 followed first order kinetics and obeyed the Fickian law. However, at pH 2.0 the release kinetics from nanoparticulated multiple emulsion followed zero order kinetics without obeying to the Fickian law. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that the nanoparticulated multiple emulsion formulation has good release characteristics and imparted a tolerable protection for insulin at different pH conditions, which may be exploited for oral administration.

The successful development of compressed ODTs utilises low compression forces to create a porous structure whereby excipients are added to enhance wicking/swelling action or provide strength to the fragile tablet framework. In this work, a systematic investigation comparing materials from two different categories was employed to understand their functionality in binary mixture tablets of the most commonly used diluent mannitol. Cellulose based excipients such as HPC (SSL-SFP), L-HPC (NBD-022) and MCC (Avicel PH-102) were compared with non-cellulosic materials such as PEO (POLYOX WSR N-10) and Crospovidone (XL-10). Pure excipient properties were studied using Heckel Plot, compressibility profile, SEM and XRPD, whereas the prepared binary mixture compacts were studied for hardness, disintegration time and friability. Results from our investigation provide insight into differences encountered in product performance of ODT upon inclusion of additional materials. For example, non-cellulosic excipients Polyox and Crospovidone showed higher plasticity (Py values 588 and 450MPa) in pure form but not in binary mixtures of mannitol. Cellulosic excipients, nonetheless, offer faster disintegration (<30 sec) specifically L-HPC and MCC tablets. Disintegration time for tablets with fully substituted-HPC was prolonged (200-500 sec) upon increasing concentration between 1-10% due to gelation/ matrix formation. It can be concluded that despite the reasonably good plasticity of both cellulosic and noncellulosic excipients in pure form, the mechanical strength in binary mixtures is negatively impacted by the fragmentation/ fracture effect of mannitol.

The migration, loosening and cut-out of implants and nosocomial infections are current problems associated with implant surgery. New innovative strategies to overcome these issues are emphasized in today’s research. The current work presents a novel strategy involving co-precipitation of tobramycin with biomimetic hydroxyapatite (HA) formation to produce implant coatings that control local drug delivery to prevent early bacterial colonization of the implant. A submicron- thin HA layer served as seed layer for the co-precipitation process and allowed for incorporation of tobramycin in the coating from a stock solution of antibiotic concentrations as high as 20 mg/ml. Concentrations from 0.5 to 20 mg/ml tobramycin and process temperatures of 37 °C and 60 °C were tested to assess the optimal parameters for a thin tobramycin- delivering HA coating on discs and orthopedic fixation pins. The morphology and thickness of the coating and the drug-release profile were evaluated via scanning electron microscopy and high performance liquid chromatography. The coatings delivered pharmaceutically relevant amounts of tobramycin over a period of 12 days. To the best of our knowledge, this is the longest release period ever observed for a fast-loaded biomimetic implant coating. The presented approach could form the foundation for development of combination device/antibiotic delivery vehicles tailored to meet well-defined clinical needs while combating infections and ensuring fast implant in-growth.

A model immunosuppressant BCS Class II drug was selected for the work to assess the formulation variables on the release rate using design of experiment (DoE) - Stat-Ease software. Surface solid dispersion was prepared with dichloromethane (DCM) and ethanol mixture (4:1), and converted to tablet by adsorption on a neutral carrier. Different batches were prepared with DoE full factorial design. The concentrations of Polaxamer 188, Kollidon CL and Magnesium stearate were found to be the critical factors affecting the performance of the tablets. These parameters were selected as the independent variables in DoE and the formulated batches were evaluated for their percentage release at 120 minutes. The actual and predicted plots fall close to the line. ANOVA (partial sum squares-type-III) reveals the model with F-value of 1417.12 which implies significant. The optimized batch with dissolution profile of 99.6% falls close to the innovator product 98.8%.

Background: The goal of effective treatment for dermal fungal infections could be highly beneficial by the delivery of antifungal drugs on skin from liposomal application. Topical delivery involves minimizing the flux of the drug through the skin while maximizing its retention on the skin. The aim of the present work was the investigation of the effects of lipids and cholesterol for the development of liposomal formulations as potential carriers for antifungal agent terbinafine HCl. Phospholipon 90H (Hydrogenated phosphatidylcholine) and Dimyristoylglycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) along with cholesterol were used for preparation of liposomes by ethanol injection method and characterized for drug content, entrapment efficiency, size, zetapotential, vesicle morphology, stability, FTIR, in vitro and ex vivo drug retention studies. Results: Drug entrapment ranged between 39.46±0.91% to 70.39±0.71%. Vesicles showed good morphological characters with a narrow size distribution, in the size range of 206.9 to 344.8 nm. Gum karaya gel loaded with liposomal dispersion showed prolonged drug retention on the rat skin during ex vivo studies compared to liposomal dispersion and gum karaya plain gel loaded with drug. Conclusion: The prolonged retention of drug by the gum karaya gel loaded with liposomal dispersion could effectively exhibit the antifungal activity for prolonged periods for cutaneous delivery.

Cilostazol is a promising drug for antiplatelet combination therapy that is very important for treatment for various cardiovascular disorders. However, oral delivery of this drug is greatly impeded by the poor solubility in aqueous solutions. The aim of this study was to develop microemulsion (ME) delivery system capable of improving the drug bioavailability. In this study, Capmul MCM C8 (glycerol monocaprylate) based MEs containing Tween 20(polysorbate 20) and/or Labrafil M 1944(poly oxyglycerides) as surfactant(S) and Transcutol P(diethyl glycol monoethyl ether) as cosurfactant( CoS) were studied as potential delivery systems of cilostazol. A number of such systems were prepared containing different S:CoS ratios(1:1, 2:1 and 3:1) based on phase diagrams. Loading of cilostazol was selected as per solubilization capacity and was characterized for pH, viscosity, conductivity, particle size, zeta potential and % transmittance. The MEs systems were further investigated for chemical stability, diffusion and bioavailability. Cilostazol displayed high solubility in microemulsions with particle size up to 70 nm. It was also stable at ambient temperature up to 6 months without significant change in particle size, zeta potential, and % transmittance. Dilution up to 100 fold with aqueous medium observed a visible cloudiness having a particle size up to 104 nm. The in vitro release, and ex vivo intraduodenal diffusion, and in vivo study indicated the capacity of developed ME to improve the bioavailability (1.43 fold) via oral route administration when compared with commercially available tablets (Pletoz-50).

Methylene blue (MB) has been shown to slow down the progression of the Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and other tauopathies; however distribution of MB into the brain is limited due its high hydrophilicity. In this study, we aimed to prepare novel hydrophobic glutathione coated PLGA nanoparticles to improve bioavailability of MB in the brain. Glutathione coated poly-(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA-b-PEG) nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared and tested in two different cell culture models of AD expressing microtubule associated protein tau (tau). The NPs showed a particle size averaging 136.5±4.4nm, which is suitable for the blood brain barrier (BBB) permeation. The in vitro release profile of the NPs exhibited no initial burst release and showed sustained drug release for up to 144 hours. Interestingly, treatment of newly formulated MB-NPs showed a potent reduction in both endogenous and over expressed tau protein levels in human neuroblastoma SHSY-5Y cells expressing endogenous tau and transfected HeLa cells over-expressing tau protein, respectively. Furthermore, in vitro BBB TranswellTM study showed significantly higher permeation of MB-NP compared to the MB solution through the co culture of rat brain endothelial 4 (RBE4) and C6 astrocytoma cells (p<0.05). The proposed MB loaded nanoparticles could provide a more effective treatment option for AD and many other related disorders.