Current Drug Abuse Reviews - Volume 2, Issue 3, 2009

Fraternities (men) and sororities (women) are (most commonly) single-sex organizations which unite students at University. In U.S.A., fraternities and sororities are called the “Greek System”, because the names of most chapters are often composed of Greek letter combinations (e.g., Alpha Phi). Besides organizing various academic and social gatherings and activities, they are known for partying. Alcohol use plays a central role at fraternities and sororities. There are few events or membership rituals which are not associated with alcohol use and/or abuse. Selection and socialization are two factors that may explain heavy alcohol use in the Greek System [1-3]. Those who are heavy drinkers at high school are more likely to join fraternities (i.e. selection), because they feel attracted to the drinking culture. On the other hand, students that join the Greek System enter an environment in which alcohol abuse is acceptable and normative. As a result, they increase their own alcohol consumption towards that of their peers (i.e. socialization).

This review examines the empirical literature on fraternity and sorority drinking published during the last decade. This body of 69 research studies indicates that both socialization and selection influence alcohol use in the Greek system, as do normative perceptions and the enabling environment of Greek housing. This review also details the individual and chapter-level interventions that have been implemented to address drinking in the Greek system. Limitations of the current survey and intervention literature suggest several promising directions for future research.

Cataract is the leading cause of blindness in the world. As the world's population ages, visual impairment due to cataract is on the increase. This is a significant global problem. The stimulating challenges are to prevent or delay cataract formation. The causes of cataract include age, hereditary factors, smoking, diabetes and ultraviolet (UV) exposure. There are some epidemiologic studies to investigate the relationship between alcohol drinking and cataract. However, the findings on the association between cataract and alcohol consumption are inconsistent. Although the pathophysiologic mechanisms between alcohol and cataract have not been adequately understood, there is some evidence to suggest the relation between alcohol and cataract. Information on a patient's drinking history can be valuable to general physicians when there is a diagnosis of cataract and should be collected on a routine basis.

Individual differences in the behavioral responses to a novel environment have been proposed as a research tool to predict responsiveness to other behavioral tasks, response to certain events and individual vulnerability to nicotine addiction. In rats and mice, novelty seeking (defined as enhanced specific exploration of novel situations) is a complex behavior confirmed by a large body of neurochemical, endocrinological and behavioral data. We review the main standardized procedures employed to measure the novelty seeking trait in rodents and the ontogeny of this behavior throughout the life-span taking into account that novelty seeking can be permanently modified as a consequence of particular early experiences, maternal care, and environmental enrichment. Studies in animal models suggest that individual differences in the sensitivity to nicotine depend on different variables such as basal locomotor activity of the experimental subjects, their response to novel environments (open-field, hole-board…) and level of impulsivity. It is concluded that these basic findings contribute to a better understanding of smoking behavior and to the establishment of improved pharmacological treatments if individual differences are borne in mind.

Preclinical drug discrimination techniques play a significant role in advancing our knowledge of the receptor mechanisms underlying the interoceptive effects of nicotine. Early reports confirmed that nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are critical for transduction of the nicotine cue. In recent years, advances in molecular biology and the discovery of novel ligands with greater selectively for specific nAChR subtypes have furthered our understanding of these mechanisms. There is now evidence regarding the specific nAChR subtypes involved in nicotine discrimination; in addition, there is also evidence suggesting that other systems (i.e., adenosine, cannabinoid, dopamine, glutamate and serotonin) may play a modulatory role. The neuroanatomical structures mediating the nicotine cue have also begun to be elucidated. However, much remains to be learned about the predictive validity of the drug discrimination procedure, particularly with regard to the relation between interoceptive and reinforcing effects and individual differences in vulnerability to tobacco dependence. Recent data also suggests that the mechanisms involved in the conditional and discriminative stimulus properties of nicotine may be dissociable. Avenues for future research should include assessing the mechanisms of the subjective effects of nicotine withdrawal, factors contributing to individual differences in sensitivity to the nicotine cue, and the role of behavioral factors involved in drug cross-substitution.

By allowing for the efficient delivery of instructional content and the secure collection of self-report data regarding substance use and related problems, the Internet has tremendous potential to improve the effectiveness and accessibility of addiction treatment services. This article discusses some of the ways in which Internet technology can facilitate, complement and support the process of traditional clinician-delivered treatment for individuals with substance use disorders. Internet applications are being used to support a range of activities including (a) the assessment and feedback process that constitutes a central feature of brief motivational interventions, (b) the concurrent monitoring of individual level outcomes among patients who are currently enrolled in addiction treatment programs, (c) the continuing care and ongoing recovery of patients who have completed treatment, and (d) the delivery of clinical training in evidence based practices for addiction treatment providers. This emerging body of literature suggests that addiction counselors and program administrators can enhance the quality of clinician-delivered treatment by incorporating internet applications into existing processes of care. Internet applications provide an unparalleled opportunity to engage patients in the treatment process, incorporate real-time data into treatment planning, prevent relapse, and promote evidence-based treatment approaches.

It is widely believed that growth hormone (GH) is abused by athletes for its anabolic and lipolytic effects. Many of the physiological effects of GH are mediated by the production of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I). Both GH and IGF-I appear on the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances. Little is known, however, about the prevalence of abuse with exogenous IGF-I. IGF-I has effects on carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism and some of these actions could prove beneficial to competitive athletes. No studies have demonstrated a positive effect of IGF-I on physical performance in healthy individuals but this has not yet been studied in appropriately designed trials. Two pharmaceutical preparations of IGF-I have recently become available for the treatment of growth disorders in children. This availability is likely to increase the prevalence of IGF-I abuse. Combining IGF-I with its binding protein IGFBP-3 in one preparation has the potential to reduce the side-effect profile but the adverse effects of long term IGF-I abuse are currently unknown. Detection of abuse with IGF-I is a major challenge for anti-doping authorities. It is extremely difficult to distinguish the exogenous recombinant form of the hormone from endogenously-produced IGF-I. One approach currently being investigated is based on measuring markers of GH and IGF-I action. This has already proved successful in the fight against GH abuse and, it is hoped, will subsequently lead to a similar test for detection of IGF-I abuse.

The complex relation between movement disorders and substance abuse is reviewed. First, we discuss the wide variety of movement disorders that occur as a direct consequence of acute use or withdrawal of drugs of abuse, such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, amphetamine and methcathinone. Second, we describe the recent advances in the comorbid relationship between alcoholism and two movement disorders: essential tremor and myoclonus-dystonia. Lastly, we discuss the abuse potential of the dopaminergic agents, apomorphine and levodopa, in patients with Parkinson's disease.