Skip to content
2000
image of Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia: A Review of its Management in Sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract

Dementia has been highlighted as one of the key diagnoses among elderly people. This study seeks to review the management of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia in Sub-Saharan Africa. A comprehensive review was carried out with the aid of online research journal websites as well as other in-context articles. While conducting this study, the keywords in the search query were directed towards managing behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia in Sub-Saharan Africa. Areas noted in relation to this study were understanding the effects on management of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia in Sub-Saharan Africa. It was discovered that 88% of the population of Ghana and 90% of the population of South Africa do not have an idea about dementia. Health professionals in sub-Saharan Africa are not provided with the knowledge they need to take care of dementia patients. There is a high prevalence rate of dementia in Africa, with a probability of having over 200% rate in dementia due to the rise of the older generation. There is a need to address the education of dementia before the management of the behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia can be curbed. Until that is that Africa will constantly be in a cycle of being at the verge of breakthrough in addressing the management of dementia and coming back to the root cause, which is health education.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/cas/10.2174/0118746098386183251001145157
2025-11-05
2026-02-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Schwartz K. Madan R. Sham R. Gardner S. Educational model for caregivers: Managing behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2020 32 S1 128 8 10.1017/S1041610220002653
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Nowrangi M.A. Outen J.D. Kim J. Avramopoulos D. Lyketsos C.G. Rosenberg P.B. Neuropsychiatric symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease: An anatomic-genetic framework for treatment development. J. Alzheimers Dis. 2023 95 1 53 68 10.3233/JAD‑221247 37522204
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Xiang X. Leggett A. Himle J.A. Kales H.C. Major depression and subthreshold depression among older adults receiving home care. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2018 26 9 939 949 10.1016/j.jagp.2018.05.001 29884541
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Sun Y. Chen C. Yu Y. Replacement of leisure-time sedentary behavior with various physical activities and the risk of dementia incidence and mortality: A prospective cohort study. J. Sport Health Sci. 2023 12 3 287 294 10.1016/j.jshs.2022.11.005 36379419
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Prince M. Wimo A. Guerchet M. Ali G.C. Wu Y.T. Prina M. The global impact of dementia an analysis of prevalence, incidence, cost and trends. 2015. World Alzheimer Report 2015 Available from:https://www.alzint.org/u/WorldAlzheimerReport2015.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Richards M. Grzenda A. Nelson E. Gitlin M. Psychiatric comorbidity in moyamoya disease and preliminary guidelines for treatment. Am. J. Psychiatry 2019 176 4 269 274 10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.18040404 30929500
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Ravindranath V. Dang H.M. Goya R.G. Regional research priorities in brain and nervous system disorders. Nature 2015 527 7578 S198 S206 10.1038/nature16036 26580328
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Stella F. Forlenza O.V. Laks J. Caregiver report versus clinician impression: Disagreements in rating neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease patients. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2015 30 12 1230 1237 10.1002/gps.4278 25754669
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Tau M. Masurkar A.V. Koro delusion in mild cognitive impairment due to alzheimer’s disease. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2020 32 2 204 206 10.1176/appi.neuropsych.19050108 31530117
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Weerasooriya T. Dutta S. Ranasinghe T. Zampieri M. Homan C. KhudaBukhsh A. Vicarious offense and noise audit of offensive speech classifiers: Unifying human and machine disagreement on what is offensive. Proceedings of the 2023 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing Singapore December 2023 11648 11668 10.18653/v1/2023.emnlp‑main.713
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Kales H.C. Gitlin L.N. Lyketsos C.G. Assessment and management of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. BMJ 2015 350 h369 10.1136/bmj.h369 25731881
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Trindade P.G.E. Santos R.L. Lacerda I.B. Johannessen A. Dourado M.C.N. Awareness of disease in Alzheimer’s disease: What do patients realize about their own condition? Aging Ment. Health 2019 23 10 1292 1299 10.1080/13607863.2018.1488945 30406679
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Al-Sagarat A.Y. Hamdan-Mansour A.M. Al-Sarayreh F. Nawafleh H. Moxham L. Prevalence of aggressive behaviours among inpatients with psychiatric disorders: A case study analysis from J ordan. Nurs. Health Sci. 2016 18 2 172 179 10.1111/nhs.12239 26538486
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Yoro-Zohoun I. Nubukpo P. Houinato D. Neuropsychiatric symptoms among older adults living in two countries in Central Africa (EPIDEMCA study). Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2019 34 1 169 178 10.1002/gps.5006 30255569
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Toot S. Swinson T. Devine M. Challis D. Orrell M. Causes of nursing home placement for older people with dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2017 29 2 195 208 10.1017/S1041610216001654 27806743
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Ryu S.H. Ha J.H. Park D.H. Yu J. Livingston G. Persistence of neuropsychiatric symptoms over six months in mild cognitive impairment in community-dwelling Korean elderly. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2011 23 2 214 220 10.1017/S1041610210001766 20863423
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Yuan D. Jenkins K.W. Tsoutsanis P. Numerical investigation of the inviscid taylor-green vortex using an adaptive filtering method for a modal discontinuous galerkin method. Int. J. Comput. Fluid Dyn. 2023 37 6 522 540 10.1080/10618562.2024.2329775
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Mukherjee A. Biswas A. Roy A. Biswas S. Gangopadhyay G. Das S.K. Behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia: Correlates and impact on caregiver distress. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. Extra 2017 7 3 354 365 10.1159/000481568 29282408
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Featherstone K. Northcott A. Harden J. Refusal and resistance to care by people living with dementia being cared for within acute hospital wards: An ethnographic study. Health Serv. Deliv. Res. 2019 7 11 1 92 10.3310/hsdr07110 30892856
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Andrade A.J. Ekkekakis P. Evmenenko A. Affective responses to resistance exercise: Toward a consensus on the timing of assessments. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2022 62 102223 10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102223
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Kales H.C. Gitlin L.N. Lyketsos C.G. Management of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia in clinical settings: Recommendations from a multidisciplinary expert panel. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2014 62 4 762 769 10.1111/jgs.12730 24635665
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Feast A. Moniz-Cook E. Stoner C. Charlesworth G. Orrell M. A systematic review of the relationship between behavioral and psychological symptoms (BPSD) and caregiver well-being. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2016 28 11 1761 1774 10.1017/S1041610216000922 27345942
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Sattar N. McInnes I.B. McMurray J.J.V. Obesity is a risk factor for severe COVID-19 infection. Circulation 2020 142 1 4 6 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.047659 32320270
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Olasoji M. Maude P. McCauley K. Not sick enough: Experiences of carers of people with mental illness negotiating care for their relatives with mental health services. J. Psychiatr. Ment. Health Nurs. 2017 24 6 403 411 10.1111/jpm.12399 28499065
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Adonteng-Kissi B. Moyle W. Grealish L. Informal care of older adults with chronic life-limiting illness in Africa: An integrative review. Int. Soc. Work 2022 65 1 127 141 10.1177/0020872819901164
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Brodaty H. Donkin M. Family caregivers of people with dementia. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 2009 11 2 217 228 10.31887/DCNS.2009.11.2/hbrodaty 19585957
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Deardorff W.J. Grossberg G.T. Behavioral and psychological symptoms in Alzheimer’s dementia and vascular dementia. Handb. Clin. Neurol. 2019 165 5 32 10.1016/B978‑0‑444‑64012‑3.00002‑2 31727229
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Jessop T. Harrison F. Cations M. Halting Antipsychotic Use in Long-Term care (HALT): A single-arm longitudinal study aiming to reduce inappropriate antipsychotic use in long-term care residents with behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2017 29 8 1391 1403 10.1017/S1041610217000084 28266282
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Stojkovic T. Stojmenovic G.M. Stefanova E. Kostic V.S. Neuropsychiatric symptoms in early onset Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia. Alzheimers Dement. 2020 16 S6 e044068 10.1002/alz.044068
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Sununta Y. Alzheimer’s disease: Risk factors and prevention. Ann Alzheimer’s Dement Care 2020 4 1 10 11 10.17352/aadc.000011
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Bell S.A. Gallagher V. Reilly S. Manning C.A. Differences in dementia caregiver distress based on caregiver gender and care recipient neuropsychiatric symptoms. Alzheimers Dement. 2023 19 S19 e078891 10.1002/alz.078891
    [Google Scholar]
  32. McIntyre RS Implementing treatment strategies for different types of depression. J Clin Psychiatry 2016 77 9 15 (Suppl. 1) 10.4088/JCP.14077su1c.02 26829432
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Cummings J.L. Tong G. Ballard C. Treatment combinations for Alzheimer’s disease: Current and future pharmacotherapy options. J. Alzheimers Dis. 2019 67 3 779 794 10.3233/JAD‑180766 30689575
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Öhman H. Savikko N.R.N. Strandberg T.E. Effects of frequent and long-term exercise on neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with Alzheimer’s disease – Secondary analyses of a randomized, controlled trial (FINALEX). Eur. Geriatr. Med. 2017 8 2 153 157 10.1016/j.eurger.2017.01.004
    [Google Scholar]
  35. FDA reinforces safety information about serious low blood sugar levels and mental health side effects with fluoroquinolone antibiotics; requires label changes. 2018 Available from:https://www.fda.gov/drugs/fda-drug-safety-podcasts/fda-drug-safety-podcast-fda-reinforces-safety-information-about-serious-low-blood-sugar-levels-and
  36. Jump R.L.P. Crnich C.J. Mody L. Bradley S.F. Nicolle L.E. Yoshikawa T.T. Infectious diseases in older adults of long-term care facilities: Update on approach to diagnosis and management. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2018 66 4 789 803 10.1111/jgs.15248 29667186
    [Google Scholar]
  37. van Buul L.W. Vreeken H.L. Bradley S.F. The development of a decision tool for the empiric treatment of suspected urinary tract infection in frail older adults: A Delphi consensus procedure. J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc. 2018 19 9 757 764 10.1016/j.jamda.2018.05.001 29910137
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Koopmans R. Veldwijk-Rouwenhorst A. Smalbrugge M. Zuidema S.U. Hanssen S. Gerritsen D.L. Continuous palliative sedation in nursing home residents with dementia suffering from extreme refractory BPSD symptoms: A qualitative study. Alzheimers Dement. 2020 16 S7 e039800 10.1002/alz.039800
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Husebo B.S. Achterberg W. Flo E. Identifying and managing pain in people with Alzheimer’s disease and other types of dementia: A systematic review. CNS Drugs 2016 30 6 481 497 10.1007/s40263‑016‑0342‑7 27240869
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Bullock L. Bedson J. Jordan J.L. Bartlam B. Chew-Graham C.A. Campbell P. Pain assessment and pain treatment for community‐dwelling people with dementia: A systematic review and narrative synthesis. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2019 34 6 807 821 10.1002/gps.5078 30724409
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Jaïdi Y. Nonnonhou V. Kanagaratnam L. Reduction of the anticholinergic burden makes it possible to decrease behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2018 26 3 280 288 10.1016/j.jagp.2017.08.005 28890165
    [Google Scholar]
  42. MacKean P. Potential of a cognitive-behavioural approach to improve patient symptoms in a primary care setting. Can. Fam. Physician 2022 68 2 93 96 10.46747/cfp.680293 35177495
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Cohen-Mansfield J. Golander H. Responses and interventions to delusions experienced by community-dwelling older persons with dementia. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol. 2022 35 4 627 635 10.1177/08919887211042937 34510943
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Williams C.M. Chaturvedi R. Factors affecting nursing home quality of life in residents with dementia. J. Gerontol. Nurs. 2020 46 12 51 52 10.3928/00989134‑20201106‑07 33232497
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Brooker D. Lillyman S. Bruce M. Behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD). In: Dementia Care. Routledge 2022 57 64 10.4324/9781003269946‑10
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Heidari A. Motamed M. Forushani A.R. Alaghband-Rad J. The association between autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in medical students. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 2023 211 6 453 459 10.1097/NMD.0000000000001645 37015108
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Beechey T. Buchholz J.M. Keidser G. Hearing aid amplification reduces communication effort of people with hearing impairment and their conversation partners. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 2020 63 4 1299 1311 10.1044/2020_JSLHR‑19‑00350 32259454
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Hillier R. Patel R. Minimising antipsychotic use for behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) in people with intellectual disability and co-morbid dementia. Eur. Psychiatry 2015 30 1485 10.1016/S0924‑9338(15)31152‑4
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Henskens M. Nauta I.M. van Eekeren M.C.A. Scherder E.J.A. Effects of physical activity in nursing home residents with dementia: A randomized controlled trial. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 2018 46 1-2 60 80 10.1159/000491818 30145595
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Guu TW Aarsland D ffytche D. Light, sleep-wake rhythm, and behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia in care home patients: Revisiting the sundowning syndrome. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2022 37 5 gps.5712 80 10.1002/gps.5712 35470491
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Lipe A.W. Edmonston M. Music and music-therapy interventions for behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. In: Music and Dementia. New York Oxford University Press 2019 197 224 10.1093/oso/9780190075934.003.0010
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Neumann R.D. Faris P. Klassen R. Examining trends in the administration of “as needed” medications to inpatients with behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. Am. J. Alzheimers Dis. Other Demen. 2015 30 3 247 256 10.1177/1533317515585924 25969566
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Bangerter L.R. Liu Y. Kim K. Zarit S.H. Adult day services and dementia caregivers’ daily affect: The role of distress response to behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. Aging Ment. Health 2021 25 1 46 52 10.1080/13607863.2019.1681934 31668091
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Kim H. Woods D.L. Mentes J.C. Martin J.L. Moon A. Phillips L.R. The nursing assistants’ communication style and the behavioral symptoms of dementia in Korean-American nursing home residents. Geriatr. Nurs. 2014 35 2 S11 6(Suppl.) 10.1016/j.gerinurse.2014.02.016 24702713
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Habuchi F. Analysis of atypical antipsychotics-induced adverse events related to diabetes mellitus in patients with dementia using the Japanese Adverse Drug Event Report Database. Ann. Pharmacother. 2023 38124305
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Lopes C. Antipsychotics use in dementia: How safe are they? Eur. Psychiatry 2021 64 S1 S425 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.1134
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Cloak N. Schoo C. Al Khalili Y. Behavioral and psychological symptoms in dementia. Treasure Island, FL StatPearls Publishing 2025
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Mukaetova-Ladinska E.B. Scully A. Behavioural and psychiatric symptoms in people with dementia admitted to acute hospitals. Br. J. Psychiatry 2015 206 2 166 6 10.1192/bjp.206.2.166 25644882
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Yamamoto E. Mourany L. Colleran R. Whitman C. Tousi B. Utility of montreal cognitive assessment in differentiating dementia with Lewy bodies from alzheimer’s dementia. Am. J. Alzheimers Dis. Other Demen. 2017 32 8 468 471 10.1177/1533317517725811 28871793
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Scassellati C. Ciani M. Maj C. Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD): Clinical characterization and genetic correlates in an Italian alzheimer’s disease cohort. J. Pers. Med. 2020 10 3 90 10.3390/jpm10030090 32823921
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Jones A.C. Yeager C.A. Nelson N.K. Cholinesterase inhibitors reduce mortality in dementia. Evidence Based Practice 2024 27 2 5 6 10.1097/EBP.0000000000001917
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Kitay B.M. Tampi R.R. Memantine in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer’s disease already receiving Donepezil New York. Oxford Academic 2018 10.1093/med/9780190625085.003.0018
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Warren S.L. Moustafa A.A. The efficacy of donepezil for the treatment of alzheimer’s disease. In: Alzheimer’s Disease. Academic Press 2022 217 232 10.1016/B978‑0‑12‑821334‑6.00001‑6
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Barak Y Glue P Does social isolation and loneliness kill people with Alzheimer's disease? OBM Geriatr 2018 2 4 021 10.21926/obm.geriatr.1804021
    [Google Scholar]
  65. LaBerge S. LaMarca K. Baird B. Pre-sleep treatment with galantamine stimulates lucid dreaming: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. PLoS One 2018 13 8 e0201246 10.1371/journal.pone.0201246 30089135
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Devanand D.P. Fremont R. Cognitive enhancers and treatments for alzheimer’s disease. Cham Springer 2024 10.1007/978‑3‑030‑51366‑5_139
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Ohno Y. Kunisawa N. Shimizu S. Antipsychotic treatment of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD): Management of extrapyramidal side effects. Front. Pharmacol. 2019 10 1045 10.3389/fphar.2019.01045 31607910
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Tschanz J.T. Hammond A.G. A Montessori-based approach to treat behavioral and psychological symptoms in dementia. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2020 32 3 303 306 10.1017/S1041610220000149 32192560
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Sohn B.K. Lee D.W. New diagnostic criteria and treatment for dementia with Lewy Bodies. J. Korean Geriatr. Psychiatry 2020 24 2 60 68 10.47825/jkgp.2020.24.2.60
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Debas K. Beauchamp J. Ouellet C. Toward optimal management of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia: Insights from a COVID-19 pandemic experience. Front. Psychiatry 2021 12 634398 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.634398 34025468
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Li D. Li X. The effect of folk recreation program in improving symptoms: A study of Chinese elder dementia patients. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2017 32 8 901 908 10.1002/gps.4543 27345629
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Needham H. Torpey G. Flores C.C. Davis C.J. Vanderheyden W.M. Gerstner J.R. A dichotomous role for FABP7 in sleep and Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis: A hypothesis. Front. Neurosci. 2022 16 798994 10.3389/fnins.2022.798994 35844236
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Samiei M. Sepehrifar Z. Daneshmand R. Sadighi G. Comparison of adjunctive quetiapine versus adjunctive haloperidol in combination with sodium valproate for treatment of patients with mania or mixed feature bipolar I disorder: A randomized double-blind clinical trial study. Iran. J. Psychiatry. Behav. Sci. 2021 15 2 10.5812/ijpbs.90106
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Zala D. Chan D. McCrone P. The cost‐effectiveness implications of suboptimal treatment for different severities of Alzheimer’s disease in the UK. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2018 33 2 307 315 10.1002/gps.4745 28612928
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Fišar Z. Hansíková H. Křížová J. Activities of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes in platelets of patients with Alzheimer’s disease and depressive disorder. Mitochondrion 2019 48 67 77 10.1016/j.mito.2019.07.013 31377247
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Fujita M. Ishizuka T. Pharmacotherapy in patients with Alzheimer-type dementia presenting with behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia: A Retrospective Chart Review of 102 patients available for 12-month follow-up after initiation of treatment. Juntendo Medical Journal 2023 69 5 370 377 10.14789/jmj.JMJ22‑0024‑OA 38845733
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Oliveira F.F. Chen E.S. Smith M.C. Bertolucci P.H.F. Predictors of cognitive and functional decline in patients with Alzheimer disease dementia from Brazil. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 2016 30 3 243 250 10.1097/WAD.0000000000000117 26523709
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Kim B. Noh G.O. Kim K. Behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia in patients with Alzheimer’s disease and family caregiver burden: A path analysis. BMC Geriatr. 2021 21 1 160 10.1186/s12877‑021‑02109‑w 33663416
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Boublay N. Bouet R. Dorey J.M. Brain volume predicts behavioral and psychological symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease. J. Alzheimers Dis. 2020 73 4 1343 1353 10.3233/JAD‑190612 31903989
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Bachu A.K. Electroconvulsive therapy in individuals with dementia/major NCD presenting with behavioral symptoms: A systematic review. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2023 36 10 864 879 37170574
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Soliman M.A. Lehmann S.W. GERI-BD: A randomized double-blind controlled trial of lithium and divalproex in the treatment of mania in older patients with bipolar disorder. Tampi R.R. Tampi D.J. Young J.J. Balasubramaniam M. Joshi P. Essential Reviews in Geriatric Psychiatry. Cham Springer 2022 10.1007/978‑3‑030‑94960‑0_21
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Boey J.P. Gallus A. Drug treatment of venous thromboembolism in the elderly. Drugs Aging 2016 33 7 475 490 10.1007/s40266‑016‑0378‑x 27255713
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Miao R. Chen H.Y. Gill S. Naude J. Smith E.E. Ismail Z. Plasma β-amyloid in mild behavioural impairment – neuropsychiatric symptoms on the Alzheimer’s continuum. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol. 2022 35 3 434 441 10.1177/08919887211016068 34036829
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Noble J.M. Treatment of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. In: Navigating Life with Dementia. New York. Oxford Academic 2022 10.1093/oso/9780190495688.003.0012
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Invernizzi S. Loureiro I.S. Arachchige K.G.K. Lefebvre L. Late-life depression, cognitive impairment, and relationship with alzheimer’s disease. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 2021 50 5 414 424 10.1159/000519453 34823241
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Li D.D. Zhang Y.H. Zhang W. Zhao P. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on the efficacy and safety of Donepezil, galantamine, Rivastigmine, and memantine for the treatment of alzheimer’s disease. Front. Neurosci. 2019 13 472 10.3389/fnins.2019.00472 31156366
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Inbal S Galia Fisher R Doron M. Transient camptocormia with citalopram treatment in a patient with mixed dementia–A case report. Arch Gerontol Geriatr Res 2020 5 1 040 2 10.17352/aggr.000025
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Bae H. Kang M.J. Improvement of hyperorality after using selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in hypoxic brain damage. Journal of Geriatric Neurology 2023 2 1 29 31 10.53991/jgn.2022.00115
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Kiani S. Rezaei P. Karami M. Sadeghzadeh R.A. Band‐stop filter sensor based on SIW cavity for the non‐invasive measuring of blood glucose. IET Wirel. Sens. Syst. 2019 9 1 1 5 10.1049/iet‑wss.2018.5044
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Jiang J. Li W. Xu J. Novel nutrition‐related genetic‐clinical‐radiological nomogram to predict behavioral and psychological symptoms in patients with alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2023 19 S18 e071090 10.1002/alz.071090
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Calvó-Perxas L. Vilalta-Franch J. Turró-Garriga O. López-Pousa S. Garre-Olmo J. Gender differences in depression and pain: A two year follow-up study of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe. J. Affect. Disord. 2016 193 157 164 10.1016/j.jad.2015.12.034 26773909
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Kamoga R. Rukundo G.Z. Wakida E.K. Nakidde G. Obua C. Buss S.S. Dementia assessment and diagnostic practices of healthcare workers in rural Southwestern Uganda: A cross-sectional qualitative study. BMC Health Serv. Res. 2019 19 1 1005 10.1186/s12913‑019‑4850‑2 31881885
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Spittel S. Kraus E. Maier A. Dementia awareness challenges in sub-Saharan Africa: A cross-sectional survey conducted among school students in ghana. Am. J. Alzheimers Dis. Other Demen. 2021 36 15333175211055315 10.1177/15333175211055315 34985361
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Khonje V. Milligan C. Yako Y. Mabelane M. Borochowitz K.E. de Jager C.A. Knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about dementia in an urban xhosa-speaking community in South Africa. Adv. Alzheimer Dis. 2015 4 2 21 36 10.4236/aad.2015.42004
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Adebiyi A.O. Fagbola M.A. Olakehinde O. Ogunniyi A. Enacted and implied stigma for dementia in a community in south‐west Nigeria. Psychogeriatrics 2016 16 4 268 273 10.1111/psyg.12156 26551624
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Sacks E. Finlayson K. Brizuela V. Crossland N. Ziegler D. Sauvé C. Factors that influence uptake of routine postnatal care: Findings on women’s perspectives from a qualitative evidence synthesis. PLOS One 2022 17 8 e0270264 10.1371/journal.pone.0270264 35960752
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Agyeman N. Guerchet M. Nyame S. “When someone becomes old then every part of the body too becomes old”: Experiences of living with dementia in Kintampo, rural Ghana. Transcult. Psychiatry 2019 56 5 895 917 10.1177/1363461519847054 31046632
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Leone T. Women’s mid-life health in low and middle income countries: A comparative analysis of the timing and speed of health deterioration in six countries. SSM Popul. Health 2019 7 100341 10.1016/j.ssmph.2018.100341 30623015
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/cas/10.2174/0118746098386183251001145157
Loading

  • Article Type:
    Review Article
Keywords: Behavioral ; symptoms ; dementia ; Africa ; management ; psychological
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test