Skip to content
2000
Volume 11, Issue 1
  • ISSN: 2667-3371
  • E-ISSN: 2667-338X

Abstract

Introduction

A pivotal aspect of advancing AI technology in manufacturing and healthcare lies in ensuring legal compliance and safety. To facilitate this, the development of tools and frameworks is underway, aiding manufacturers in crafting AI-based products that align with regulations and standards.

Objectives

This paper focuses on providing clear, structured guidance for users involved in developing AI-based medical devices. The objectives are threefold:

To clarify the expectations set forth by regulatory bodies concerning compliance for AI/ML-based software.

To outline a systematic approach for implementing safety and effectiveness measures in AI-based medical devices.

It addresses the absence of a unified standard by providing guidance that aligns with existing regulations as fully as possible.

Methods

The study reviews existing regulations and frameworks applicable to Artificial Intelligence based medical devices in various countries.

Results and Discussion

This paper provides practical tools and frameworks designed to streamline regulatory compliance processes. These resources enable manufacturers to navigate legal complexities more efficiently while minimizing legal risks and ensuring that safety and effectiveness considerations are thoroughly addressed.

Conclusion

As laws and regulations continue to evolve, it is essential to create clear pathways for integrating AI technologies into medical devices. This paper provides actionable guidance that supports manufacturers in complying with current regulations, fostering a more accountable, patient-centric approach in medical decision-making and treatment. By offering structured insights and bridging the regulatory gap globally, the paper contributes to safer and more effective deployment of AI in medical devices.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/adctra/10.2174/0126673371347630250418134235
2025-01-01
2025-08-27
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. ZhangJ. ChenZ. Exploring human resource management digital transformation in the digital age.J. Knowl. Econ.20241511482149810.1007/s13132‑023‑01214‑y
    [Google Scholar]
  2. ParameshaM. RaneN.L. RaneJ. Big data analytics, artificial intelligence, machine learning, internet of things, and blockchain for enhanced business intelligence.Part. Univ. Multidiscip. Res. J.2024121810.5281/zenodo.12827323
    [Google Scholar]
  3. KhogaliH.O. MekidS. The blended future of automation and AI: Examining some long-term societal and ethical impact features.Technol. Soc.20237310223210.1016/j.techsoc.2023.102232
    [Google Scholar]
  4. XuY. LiuX. CaoX. HuangC. LiuE. QianS. LiuX. WuY. DongF. QiuC.W. QiuJ. HuaK. SuW. WuJ. XuH. HanY. FuC. YinZ. LiuM. RoepmanR. DietmannS. VirtaM. KengaraF. ZhangZ. ZhangL. ZhaoT. DaiJ. YangJ. LanL. LuoM. LiuZ. AnT. ZhangB. HeX. CongS. LiuX. ZhangW. LewisJ.P. TiedjeJ.M. WangQ. AnZ. WangF. ZhangL. HuangT. LuC. CaiZ. WangF. ZhangJ. Artificial intelligence: A powerful paradigm for scientific research.Innovation20212410017910.1016/j.xinn.2021.10017934877560
    [Google Scholar]
  5. JavaidM. HaleemA. SinghP.R. SumanR. RabS. Significance of machine learning in healthcare: Features, pillars and applications.Inter. J. Intell. Net.20223587310.1016/j.ijin.2022.05.002
    [Google Scholar]
  6. BajwaJ. MunirU. NoriA. WilliamsB. Artificial intelligence in healthcare: Transforming the practice of medicine.Future Healthc. J.202182e188e19410.7861/fhj.2021‑009534286183
    [Google Scholar]
  7. AlowaisS.A. AlghamdiS.S. AlsuhebanyN. AlqahtaniT. AlshayaA.I. AlmoharebS.N. AldairemA. AlrashedM. SalehB.K. BadreldinH.A. YamiA.M.S. HarbiA.S. AlbekairyA.M. Revolutionizing healthcare: The role of artificial intelligence in clinical practice.BMC Med. Educ.202323168910.1186/s12909‑023‑04698‑z37740191
    [Google Scholar]
  8. StafieC.S. SufaruI.G. GhiciucC.M. StafieI.I. SufaruE.C. SolomonS.M. HancianuM. Exploring the intersection of artificial intelligence and clinical healthcare: A multidisciplinary review.Diagnostics20231312199510.3390/diagnostics1312199537370890
    [Google Scholar]
  9. XuH. ShuttleworthK.M.J. Medical artificial intelligence and the black box problem: A view based on the ethical principle of “do no harm”.Intell. Med.202441525710.1016/j.imed.2023.08.001
    [Google Scholar]
  10. EschenbachV.W.J. Transparency and the black box problem: Why we do not trust AI.Philos. Technol.20213441607162210.1007/s13347‑021‑00477‑0
    [Google Scholar]
  11. MennellaC. ManiscalcoU. PietroD.G. EspositoM. Ethical and regulatory challenges of AI technologies in healthcare: A narrative review.Heliyon2024104e2629710.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e2629738384518
    [Google Scholar]
  12. WilliamsonS.M. PrybutokV. Balancing privacy and progress: A review of privacy challenges, systemic oversight, and patient perceptions in AI-driven healthcare.Appl. Sci.202414267510.3390/app14020675
    [Google Scholar]
  13. 6 Challenges in medical tech manufacturing: Standards & certs.2022Available from: https://blog.matric.com/challenges-in-medical-device-manufacturing-standards-certifications
  14. The top 10 challenges faced by medical device manufacturers!.2023Available from: https://www.elexes.com/challenges-for-medical-device-manufacturers/
  15. ZapataC.K.A. WardT. LoughranR. McCafferyF. Challenges associated with the adoption of artificial intelligence in medical device software.Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science. LongoL. O’ReillyR. ChamSpringer Nature Switzerland202316317410.1007/978‑3‑031‑26438‑2_13
    [Google Scholar]
  16. PalaniappanK. LinE.Y.T. VogelS. Global regulatory frameworks for the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the healthcare services sector.Healthcare202412556210.3390/healthcare1205056238470673
    [Google Scholar]
  17. ShuY. DongziN. ZhaolianXU Analysis on the regulation and application of united states artificial intelligence medical device.China Med Devices.2021362117122
    [Google Scholar]
  18. TiwariA. Regulatory consideration in ai-driven healthcare.FOCUS WTO.20232542331
    [Google Scholar]
  19. LarsonD.B. HarveyH. RubinD.L. IraniN. TseJ.R. LanglotzC.P. Regulatory frameworks for development and evaluation of artificial intelligence–based diagnostic imaging algorithms: Summary and recommendations.J. Am. Coll. Radiol.202118341342410.1016/j.jacr.2020.09.06033096088
    [Google Scholar]
  20. GranlundT. StirbuV. MikkonenT. Toward a regulatory-compliant lifecycle for artificial-intelligence-based medical devices in the european union: Industry perspectives.Computer2024579243410.1109/MC.2024.3414368
    [Google Scholar]
  21. SheyninN. Top medical device trends & outlook.2024Available from: https://www.alpha-sense.com/blog/trends/medical-device-trends-outlook/
  22. Artificial intelligence/machine learning medical device market - a global and regional analysis.2023Available from: https://bisresearch.com/industry-report/artificial-intelligence-machine-learning-medical-device-market.html
  23. AI in healthcare: Factors, trends, benefits, challenges, and future.2024Available from: https://www.solutelabs.com/blog/healthcare-ai
  24. Regulatory considerations on artificial intelligence for health.2023Available from: https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/373421/9789240078871-eng.pdf
  25. JhansiG. YerraguntlaM. MuppaY. ChowdaryT.H. NaikM.M. RavisankarP. Regulatory considerations for AI/ML medical devices bridging the gap between innovation and patient safety.Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res.20240111010.47583/ijpsrr.2024.v84i12.001
    [Google Scholar]
  26. AbujaberA.A. NashwanA.J. Ethical framework for artificial intelligence in healthcare research: A path to integrity.World J. Methodol.20241439407110.5662/wjm.v14.i3.9407139310239
    [Google Scholar]
  27. NasirS. KhanR.A. BaiS. Ethical framework for harnessing the power of ai in healthcare and beyond.IEEE Access202412310143103510.1109/ACCESS.2024.3369912
    [Google Scholar]
  28. ReddyS. Navigating the AI revolution: The case for precise regulation in health care.J. Med. Internet Res.202325e4998910.2196/4998937695650
    [Google Scholar]
  29. HannaM.G. PantanowitzL. JacksonB. PalmerO. VisweswaranS. PantanowitzJ. DeebajahM. RashidiH.H. Ethical and bias considerations in artificial intelligence/machine learning.Mod. Pathol.202538310068610.1016/j.modpat.2024.10068639694331
    [Google Scholar]
  30. KrishnamoorthyB. Challenges faced by medical device manufacturers for regulatory approvals balaji krishnamoorthybalaji krishnamoorthy balaji krishnamoorthy.2024Available from: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/challenges-faced-medical-device-manufacturers-balaji-krishnamoorthy-blwrf/
  31. JinMLH VogelS Artificial intelligence in healthcare: Landscape, policies and regulations in asia-pacific.2020Available from: https://www.duke-nus.edu.sg/docs/librariesprovider5/default-document-library/niha_white-paper_ai-in-healthcare_vfinal-23102020.pdf?sfvrsn=1c5e2636_0
  32. TsangL KracovDA MulryneJ StromL PerkinsN DickinsonR The impact of artificial intelligence on medical innovation in the european union and united states.2017Available from: https://www.arnoldporter.com/-/media/files/perspectives/publications/2017/08/the-impact-of-artificial-inteelligence-on-medical-innovation.pdf
  33. ChatilaR. HavensJ.C. The ieee global initiative on ethics of autonomous and intelligent systems.Robotics and Well-Being.ChamSpringer2019111610.1007/978‑3‑030‑12524‑0_2
    [Google Scholar]
  34. TaeihaghA. Governance of artificial intelligence.Policy Soc.202140213715710.1080/14494035.2021.1928377
    [Google Scholar]
  35. BesalD. AI-based medical devices: The regulatory landscape.2021Available from: https://www.mpo-mag.com/ai-based-medical-devices-the-regulatory-landscape/
  36. YvesS.J.A. SusannahL.S.J. RichardsB. RogersW.A. Defining change: Exploring expert views about the regulatory challenges in adaptive artificial intelligence for healthcare - ScienceDirect.Health Policy Technol.202413310089210.1016/j.hlpt.2024.100892
    [Google Scholar]
  37. GerkeS. BabicB. EvgeniouT. CohenI.G. The need for a system view to regulate artificial intelligence/machine learning-based software as medical device.NPJ Digit. Med.2020315310.1038/s41746‑020‑0262‑232285013
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Premarket notification 510(k).2024Available from: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/premarket-submissions-selecting-and-preparing-correct-submission/premarket-notification-510k
  39. De novo classification request.2024Available from: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/premarket-submissions-selecting-and-preparing-correct-submission/de-novo-classification-request
  40. Premarket approval (PMA).2023Available from: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/premarket-submissions-selecting-and-preparing-correct-submission/premarket-approval-pma
  41. Proposed regulatory framework for modifications to artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML)-based software as a medical device (SAMD).2022Available from: https://www.fda.gov/media/122535/download
  42. Artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML)-based software as a medical device (saMD) action plan.2021Available from: https://www.fda.gov/media/145022/download
  43. Artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI/ML)-enabled medical devices.2024Available from: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/software-medical-device-samd/artificial-intelligence-and-machine-learning-aiml-enabled-medical-devices
  44. Good machine learning practice for medical device development guiding principles.2023Available from: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/software-medical-device-samd/good-machine-learning-practice-medical-device-development-guiding-principles
  45. Marketing submission recommendations for a predetermined change control plan for artificial intelligence-enabled device software functions - guidance for industry and food and drug administration staff.2024Available from: https://www.fda.gov/media/166704/download
  46. Predetermined change control plans for machine learning-enabled medical devices: Guiding principles.2024Available from: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/software-medical-device-samd/predetermined-change-control-plans-machine-learning-enabled-medical-devices-guiding-principles
  47. Artificial intelligence and medical products.2024Available from: https://www.fda.gov/science-research/science-and-research-special-topics/artificial-intelligence-and-medical-products
  48. LebretA. Defragmenting european law on medical AI.2023Available from: https://petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2023/06/13/defragmenting-european-law-on-medical-ai/
  49. MuehlematterU.J. DanioreP. VokingerK.N. Approval of artificial intelligence and machine learning-based medical devices in the USA and Europe (2015–20): A comparative analysis.Lancet Digit. Health202133e195e20310.1016/S2589‑7500(20)30292‑233478929
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Proposal for a regulation of the european parliament and of the council laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (artificial intelligence act) and amending certain union legislative acts.2021Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1623335154975&uri=CELEX%3A52021PC0206
  51. White Paper on Artificial Intelligence: A European approach to excellence and trust.2020Available from: https://commission.europa.eu/document/d2ec4039-c5be-423a-81ef-b9e44e79825b_en
  52. Guidance - MDCG endorsed documents and other guidance.2023Available from: https://health.ec.europa.eu/medical-devices-sector/new-regulations/guidance-mdcg-endorsed-documents-and-other-guidance_en
  53. Klassifizierung von Medizinprodukten nach MDR: Regel 11 für Software.2019Available from: https://www.vde.com/topics-de/health/beratung/regel-11
  54. Approval of AI-based medical devices in europe.2024Available from: https://www.vde.com/topics-en/health/consulting/approval-of-ai-based-medical-devices-in-europe
    [Google Scholar]
  55. MeszarosJ. MinariJ. HuysI. The future regulation of artificial intelligence systems in healthcare services and medical research in the European Union.Front. Genet.20221392772110.3389/fgene.2022.92772136267404
    [Google Scholar]
  56. VershaD.P.S. How can we manage biases in artificial intelligence systems – A systematic literature review.I.nt J. Inf. Manag. Data Insights.20233110016510.1016/j.jjimei.2023.100165
    [Google Scholar]
  57. The Medical Devices Regulations.2002Available from: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2002/618/contents
  58. Council directive 93/42/EEC.1993Available from: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1993/42/contents
  59. Council Directive of 20 June 1990 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to active implantable medical devices (90/385/EEC).1990Available from: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1990/385
  60. Directive 98/79/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 October 1998 on in vitro diagnostic medical devices.1998Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31998L0079
  61. HanJ.E.D. IbrahimH. AiyegbusiO.L. LiuX. MarstonE. DennistonA.K. CalvertM.J. Opportunities and risks of uk medical device reform.Ther. Innov. Regul. Sci.202256459660610.1007/s43441‑022‑00394‑035416614
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Software and AI as a medical device change programme - roadmap.2023Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/software-and-ai-as-a-medical-device-change-programme/software-and-ai-as-a-medical-device-change-programme-roadmap
  63. The regulation of artificial intelligence as a medical device.2022Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/6384bf98e90e0778a46ce99f/RHC_regulation_of_AI_as_a_Medical_Device_report.pdf
  64. A pro-innovation approach to AI regulation.2023Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ai-regulation-a-pro-innovation-approach/white-paper
  65. YarosO. HajdaO. PrinsleyM.A. UK Government proposes a new approach to regulating artificial intelligence (AI).2022Available from: https://www.mayerbrown.com/en/insights/publications/2022/08/uk-government-proposes-a-new-approach-to-regulating-artificial-intelligence-ai
  66. Report on AI-based Software as a Medical Device (SaMD).2023Available from: https://www.pmda.go.jp/files/000266100.pdf
  67. TakeshiE. Third party certification system in japan.2000Available from: https://www.pmda.go.jp/files/000266884.pdf
  68. Healthcare: Medical devices.2024Available from: https://practiceguides.chambers.com/practice-guides/healthcare-medical-devices-2024/japan/trends-and-developments
  69. How the TGA regulates software-based medical devices.2021Available from: https://www.tga.gov.au/sites/default/files/how-tga-regulates-software-based-medical-devices.pdf
  70. TGA on software-based medical devices (overview).2023Available from: https://www.regdesk.co/tga-on-software-based-medical-devices-overview/
  71. Supporting responsible AI: Discussion paper.2023Available from: https://consult.industry.gov.au/supporting-responsible-ai/submission/view/157
  72. Information for NSW health staff TGA medical device reforms software-based medical devices (including software as a medical device).2024Available from: https://www.cec.health.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/952966/Factsheet-Software-based-medical-devices-including-software-as-a-medical-device.pdf
  73. Health canada guidance on management of medical device applications: Review process.2024Available from: https://www.regdesk.co/health-canada-guidance-on-management-of-medical-device-applications-review-process/
  74. CanadaH. Medical devices directorate.2021Available from: https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/corporate/about-health-canada/branches-agencies/health-products-food-branch/medical-devices-directorate.html
  75. The Canadian legal landscape on AI enabled medical devices.2023Available from: https://www.blg.com/en/insights/2023/06/the-canadian-legal-landscape-on-ai-enabled-medical-devices
  76. CanadaH. Good machine learning practice for medical device development: Guiding principles.2021Available from: https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/medical-devices/good-machine-learning-practice-medical-device-development.html
  77. HoC.W.L. Implementing the human right to science in the regulatory governance of artificial intelligence in healthcare.J. Law Biosci.2023102lsad02610.1093/jlb/lsad02637854168
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Health Canada releases guiding principles on artificial intelligence and machine learning for medical devices.2021Available from: https://www.blg.com/en/insights/2021/11/health-canada-releases-guiding-principles-on-artificial-intelligence-and-machine-learning
  79. Artificial Intelligence and Data Act.2023Available from: https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/innovation-better-canada/en/artificial-intelligence-and-data-act
  80. Canada’s AI regulations: An overview of the Artificial Data and Intelligence Act (AIDA).2024Available from: https://www.diligent.com/resources/blog/canada-ai-regulations
  81. AI-driven medical devices and software in the spotlight as india redefines regulations.2022Available from: https://intellectual-property-helpdesk.ec.europa.eu/news-events/news/ai-driven-medical-devices-and-software-india-under-spotlight-clearly-regulate-fast-evolving-sector-2022-10-03_en
  82. Medical Devices Rules.2017Available from: https://cdsco.gov.in/opencms/resources/UploadCDSCOWeb/2022/m_device/Medical%20Devices%20Rules,%202017.pdf
  83. ISO 13485:2016(en), Medical devices — Quality management systems — Requirements for regulatory purposes.2017Available from: https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:13485:ed-3:v1:en
  84. Medical devices — Application of risk management to medical devices.2019Available from: https://www.iso.org/standard/72704.html
  85. KovačevićD. Medical device HQ.2024Available from: https://medicaldevicehq.com/articles/the-illustrated-guide-to-medical-device-software-development-and-iec-62304/
  86. IEC 60601: Product safety standards for medical devices.2017Available from: https://www.intertek.com/medical/regulatory-requirements/iec-60601-1/
  87. The illustrated guide to software as a medical device (SaMD), IEC 82304-1 and AI.2024Available from: https://medicaldevicehq.com/articles/the-illustrated-guide-to-software-as-a-medical-device-samd-iec-82304-1-and-ai/
  88. HeidenreichG. IEC International Standard 81001-5-1:2021 Health software and health IT systems safety, effectiveness and security - Part 5-1: Security - Activities in the product life cycle.2021Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363296395_IEC_International_Standard_81001-5-12021_Health_software_and_health_IT_systems_safety_effectiveness_and_security_-_Part_5-1_Security_-_Activities_in_the_product_life_cycle
  89. Accept decline IEC 62366 explained: What you need to know about usability engineering.2017Available from: https://www.greenlight.guru/blog/iec-62366-usability-engineering
  90. Ethical guidelines for application of artificial intelligence in biomedical research and healthcare | indian council of medical research | government of india.2022Available from: https://www.icmr.gov.in/ethical-guidelines-for-application-of-artificial-intelligence-in-biomedical-research-and-healthcare
  91. Ethics and governance of artificial intelligence for health.WHO Guidance.1st EdGeneva, Switzerland,World Health Organization202112
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Regulation of software as medical device (SaMD) in india.2022Available from: https://www.freyrsolutions.com/blog/regulation-of-software-as-medical-device-samd-in-india
  93. Guidance on samd regulations - lifecycle approach.2021Available from: https://apacmed.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/SaMD-Guidance-Document.pdf
  94. BelliL. CurziY. GasparW.B. AI regulation in Brazil: Advancements, flows, and need to learn from the data protection experience.Comput. Law Secur. Rep.20234810576710.1016/j.clsr.2022.105767
    [Google Scholar]
  95. MachadoA.F.P. HochmanB. TacaniP.M. LiebanoR.E. FerreiraL.M. Medical devices registration by ANVISA (Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária).Clinics20116661095109610.1590/S1807‑5932201100060002921808881
    [Google Scholar]
  96. CorrêaC.P. New guidelines for the regulation of medical devices in Brazil will become effective.2023Available from: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=93d88f02-666b-47b8-be2b-c57f025c608a
  97. Resolution for regulation of software as medical device (SaMD).2023Available from: https://www.freyrsolutions.com/blog/resolution-for-regulation-of-software-as-medical-device-samd-in-brazil
  98. HanY. CerossA. BergmannJ. Regulatory frameworks for AI-enabled medical device software in china: Comparative analysis and review of implications for global manufacturer.JMIR AI20243e4687110.2196/4687139073860
    [Google Scholar]
  99. SongX. HuM. LiB. ZhangK. ZhangX. WangL. Advancing medical device regulatory reforms for innovation, translation and industry development in China.J. Orthop. Translat.202237899310.1016/j.jot.2022.09.01536262965
    [Google Scholar]
  100. YuT. Six AI guidelines issued for medical device software in 2023, propelling china to be world leader.2024Available from: https://chinameddevice.com/six-ai-guidelines-2023/
  101. China medical device standards management annual report.2023Available from: https://english.nmpa.gov.cn/2024-05/11/c_986570.htm
/content/journals/adctra/10.2174/0126673371347630250418134235
Loading
/content/journals/adctra/10.2174/0126673371347630250418134235
Loading

Data & Media loading...

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test