Skip to content
2000
Volume 25, Issue 6
  • ISSN: 1871-5265
  • E-ISSN: 2212-3989

Abstract

Background and Objectives

Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) is one of the deadliest viral diseases in history, rapidly spreading to other parts of the world. Due to frequent travel, the popularity of tourism, public international contacts, and imported goods, Ebola is considered a threat to people around the world. The present study was conducted with the aim of determining the status of epidemiology, pathophysiology, virology, clinical symptoms, diagnosis, prevention, treatment, and classification of EVD.

Methods

This systematic review was conducted in the spring of 2024 by searching English articles using desired keywords in PubMed, Google Scholar, ISC, Scopus, and Web of Science databases without time limits. The search strategy was based on the PRISMA 2020 statement.

Results

Frequent outbreaks of EVD have caused numerous deaths and complications. Since the virus may lead to a pandemic, its prevention is of great importance due to its high potential to cause a significant physical and economic burden.

Conclusion

Hence, there is an urgent need to conduct clinical trials on EVD to develop possible treatments and strategies to prevent any further outbreaks of the disease.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/iddt/10.2174/0118715265340884250107055339
2025-02-12
2025-10-18
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. LetafatiA. Salahi ArdekaniO. KaramiH. SoleimaniM. Ebola virus disease: A narrative review.Microb. Pathog.202318110621310.1016/j.micpath.2023.106213 37355146
    [Google Scholar]
  2. MirzaM. IkramN. Integrated computational approach for virtual hit identification against ebola viral proteins VP35 and VP40.Int. J. Mol. Sci.20161711174810.3390/ijms17111748 27792169
    [Google Scholar]
  3. BandyopadhyayB. VermaN. ChouhanU. In sillico analysis of newly identified potential drug lead compound against VP40 for the treatment of ebola virus infection.Int. J. Adv. Biotechnol. Res.20167413571365
    [Google Scholar]
  4. VeljkovicV. LoiseauP.M. FigadereB. Virtual screen for repurposing approved and experimental drugs for candidate inhibitors of Ebola virus infection.F1000 Res.201543410.12688/f1000research.6110.1 25717373
    [Google Scholar]
  5. DembekZ. HadeedS. TigabuB. Ebola virus disease outbreaks: Lessons learned from past and facing future challenges.Mil. Med.20241897-8e1470e147810.1093/milmed/usae204 38743575
    [Google Scholar]
  6. MalikS. KishoreS. NagS. Ebola virus disease vaccines: Development, current perspectives & challenges.Vaccines202311226810.3390/vaccines11020268 36851146
    [Google Scholar]
  7. CamaraA. DialloL. CamaraM. A comparative study of Ebola hemorrhagic fever epidemic trends in three West African countries (Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone).Int. J. Community Med. Public Health2016355956510.18203/2394‑6040.ijcmph20160451
    [Google Scholar]
  8. KortepeterM.G. SmithP.W. HewlettA. CieslakT.J. Caring for patients with Ebola: A challenge in any care facility.Ann. Intern. Med.20151626869
    [Google Scholar]
  9. YaoH-W. FangL-Q. SuoJ-J. LiuY-X. CaoW-C. Progress in epidemiology of Ebola virus disease.Progress in China Epidemiology.Springer2023101120
    [Google Scholar]
  10. El AyoubiL.E.W. MahmoudO. ZakhourJ. KanjS.S. Recent advances in the treatment of Ebola disease: A brief overview.PLoS Pathog.2024203e101203810.1371/journal.ppat.1012038 38489257
    [Google Scholar]
  11. OrganizationW.H. Ebola and Marburg virus disease epidemics: Preparedness, alert, control, and evaluation.World Health Organization2014
    [Google Scholar]
  12. PRISMA Flow Diagramhttps://www.prisma-statement.org/prisma-2020-flow-diagram
  13. RyabchikovaE. KolesnikovaL. SmolinaM. Ebola virus infection in guinea pigs: Presumable role of granulomatous inflammation in pathogenesis.Arch. Virol.1996141590992110.1007/BF01718165 8678836
    [Google Scholar]
  14. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/ebola-virus
  15. PinskiA.N. MessaoudiI. Therapeutic vaccination strategies against EBOV by rVSV-EBOV-GP: The role of innate immunity.Curr. Opin. Virol.20215117918910.1016/j.coviro.2021.10.007 34749265
    [Google Scholar]
  16. https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/symptoms/index.html
  17. PleškoS. VolkH. LukšičM. PodlipnikČ. In silico study of plant polyphenols’ interactions with VP24–Ebola virus matrix protein.Acta Chim. Slov.201562355556410.17344/acsi.2015.1505 26454589
    [Google Scholar]
  18. BalmithM. SolimanM.E.S. Potential Ebola drug targets — filling the gap: A critical step forward towards the design and discovery of potential drugs.Biologia (Bratisl.)201772111310.1515/biolog‑2017‑0012
    [Google Scholar]
  19. PriyaJ. PrabhaA.S. RajeshS. AroulmojiV. GnanendraT. High throughput screening for identification of potent inhibitors targeting ebola virus major matrix protein VP40.Int J Adv Sci Eng2015141015
    [Google Scholar]
  20. BalmithM. FayaM. SolimanM.E.S. Ebola virus: A gap in drug design and discovery ‐ experimental and computational perspective.Chem. Biol. Drug Des.201789329730810.1111/cbdd.12870 27637475
    [Google Scholar]
  21. TimothyJ.W.S. HallY. Akoi-BoréJ. Early transmission and case fatality of Ebola virus at the index site of the 2013–16 west African Ebola outbreak: A cross-sectional seroprevalence survey.Lancet Infect. Dis.201919442943810.1016/S1473‑3099(18)30791‑6 30799252
    [Google Scholar]
  22. NicastriE. KobingerG. VairoF. Ebola virus disease: Epidemiology, clinical features, management, and prevention.Infectious Disease Clinics2019334953976 31668200
    [Google Scholar]
  23. SunJ. UwishemaO. KassemH. Ebola virus outbreak returns to the Democratic Republic of Congo: An urgent rising concern.Ann. Med. Surg. (Lond.)20227910395810.1016/j.amsu.2022.103958 35757313
    [Google Scholar]
  24. OhimainE.I. Silas-OluD. The 2013–2016 Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa.Curr. Opin. Pharmacol.20216036036510.1016/j.coph.2021.08.002 34537503
    [Google Scholar]
  25. DixonM.G. SchaferI.J. Ebola viral disease outbreak--West Africa, 2014.MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep.20146325548551 24964881
    [Google Scholar]
  26. AylwardB. BarbozaP. BawoL. Ebola virus disease in West Africa--the first 9 months of the epidemic and forward projections.N. Engl. J. Med.2014371161481149510.1056/NEJMoa1411100 25244186
    [Google Scholar]
  27. GanguliI. ChangY. WeissmanA. ArmstrongK. MetlayJ.P. Ebola risk and preparedness: A national survey of internists.J. Gen. Intern. Med.201631327628110.1007/s11606‑015‑3493‑1 26289923
    [Google Scholar]
  28. NyarkoY. GoldfrankL. OgedegbeG. SoghoianS. de-Graft AikinsA. Preparing for Ebola virus disease in West African countries not yet affected: Perspectives from ghanaian health professionals.Global. Health2015111710.1186/s12992‑015‑0094‑z 25885772
    [Google Scholar]
  29. GelfeldB EfronS MooreM BlankJ Mitigating the impact of ebola in potential hot zones.Available from: https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PE146.html
    [Google Scholar]
  30. W.H.O. WHO statement on the meeting of the International Health Regulations Emergency Committee regarding the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa. 2014. Available from:https://www.afro.who.int/media-centre/statements-commentaries/who-statement-meeting-international-health-regulations
  31. EvansD. GoldsteinM. PopovaA. The next wave of deaths from Ebola? The impact of health care worker mortality.2015Available from: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/79891804-a4be-5493-9442-14d580d675a7/content
    [Google Scholar]
  32. SperoniK.G. SeibertD.J. MallinsonR.K. Nurses’ perceptions on Ebola care in the United States, Part 2: A qualitative analysis.J. Nurs. Adm.2015451154455010.1097/NNA.0000000000000261 26465225
    [Google Scholar]
  33. WHO Infection prevention and control guideline for Ebola and Marburg disease, August 2023.World Health Organization2023
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Interim infection prevention and control guidance for care of patients with suspected or confirmed filovirus haemorrhagic fever in health-care settings, with focus on Ebola. World Health Organization2014
    [Google Scholar]
  35. WilletV. DixitD. FisherD. Summary of WHO infection prevention and control guideline for Ebola and Marburg disease: A call for evidence based practice.BMJ2024384281110.1136/bmj.p2811 38408787
    [Google Scholar]
  36. ForgieEME The West Knows Best. Unintended consequences of western aid during the West African and democratic republic of the congo Ebola epidemics2021
    [Google Scholar]
  37. BarrallA.L. ReKAP of the COVID-19 pandemic: Knowledge, attitudes, and practices among healthcare workers with varying ebola history in the democratic republic of the Congo, august 2020 to August 2021.Los AngelesUniversity of California2023
    [Google Scholar]
  38. W.H.O. Ebola virus disease democratic republic of congo: External situation report 98. 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/citations/i/item/10665-332654
  39. KileyM.P. BowenE.T.W. EddyG.A. Filoviridae: A taxonomic home for Marburg and Ebola viruses?Intervirology1982181-2243210.1159/000149300 7118520
    [Google Scholar]
  40. YangZ. DuckersH.J. SullivanN.J. SanchezA. NabelE.G. NabelG.J. Identification of the Ebola virus glycoprotein as the main viral determinant of vascular cell cytotoxicity and injury.Nat. Med.20006888688910.1038/78654 10932225
    [Google Scholar]
  41. FowlerR.A. FletcherT. FischerW.A.II Caring for critically ill patients with ebola virus disease. Perspectives from West Africa.Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.2014190773373710.1164/rccm.201408‑1514CP 25166884
    [Google Scholar]
  42. FuruyamaW. MarziA. Ebola virus: Pathogenesis and countermeasure development.Annu. Rev. Virol.20196143545810.1146/annurev‑virology‑092818‑015708 31567063
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Bociąga-JasikM. GarlickiA. PiątekA. Ebola virus disease: Pathogenesis, clinical presentation and management.Folia Med. Cracov.20145434959 25694095
    [Google Scholar]
  44. FeldmannH. GeisbertT.W. Ebola haemorrhagic fever.Lancet2011377976884986210.1016/S0140‑6736(10)60667‑8 21084112
    [Google Scholar]
  45. BradfuteS.B. SwansonP.E. SmithM.A. Mechanisms and consequences of ebolavirus-induced lymphocyte apoptosis.J. Immunol.2010184132733510.4049/jimmunol.0901231 20028660
    [Google Scholar]
  46. WauquierN. BecquartP. PadillaC. BaizeS. LeroyE.M. Human fatal zaire ebola virus infection is associated with an aberrant innate immunity and with massive lymphocyte apoptosis.PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.2010410e83710.1371/journal.pntd.0000837 20957152
    [Google Scholar]
  47. KortepeterM.G. BauschD.G. BrayM. Basic clinical and laboratory features of filoviral hemorrhagic fever.J. Infect. Dis.2011204Suppl. 3S810S81610.1093/infdis/jir299 21987756
    [Google Scholar]
  48. RobertsI. PernerA. Ebola virus disease: Clinical care and patient-centred research.Lancet201438499592001200210.1016/S0140‑6736(14)62316‑3 25483156
    [Google Scholar]
  49. MalvyD. McElroyA.K. de ClerckH. GüntherS. van GriensvenJ. Ebola virus disease.Lancet20193931017493694810.1016/S0140‑6736(18)33132‑5 30777297
    [Google Scholar]
  50. WestT.E. von Saint André-von ArnimA. Clinical presentation and management of severe Ebola virus disease.Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc.20141191341135010.1513/AnnalsATS.201410‑481PS 25369317
    [Google Scholar]
  51. ChavezS. KoyfmanA. GottliebM. Ebola virus disease: A review for the emergency medicine clinician.Am. J. Emerg. Med.202370304010.1016/j.ajem.2023.04.037 37196593
    [Google Scholar]
  52. RosovitzM. VoskuilM. ChamblissG. Bacillus, topley and Wilson’s microbiology and microbial infections, systematic, bacteriology.New YorkOxford University Press1998
    [Google Scholar]
  53. De ClercqE. Ebola virus (EBOV) infection: Therapeutic strategies.Biochem. Pharmacol.201593111010.1016/j.bcp.2014.11.008 25481298
    [Google Scholar]
  54. RichmanD.D. ClevelandP.H. McCormickJ.B. JohnsonK.M. Antigenic analysis of strains of Ebola virus: Identification of two Ebola virus serotypes.J. Infect. Dis.1983147226827110.1093/infdis/147.2.268 6827143
    [Google Scholar]
  55. KsiazekT.G. WestC.P. RollinP.E. JahrlingP.B. PetersC.J. ELISA for the detection of antibodies to Ebola viruses.J. Infect. Dis.1999179s1Suppl. 1S192S19810.1086/514313 9988184
    [Google Scholar]
  56. JoffeS. Evaluating novel therapies during the Ebola epidemic.JAMA2014312131299130010.1001/jama.2014.12867 25211645
    [Google Scholar]
  57. MeherA. DasN. ChaudharyR. KumarH. Role of miRNA in Ebola diagnosis and therapeutics.MicroRNA in Human Infectious Diseases.Elsevier202413516310.1016/B978‑0‑323‑99661‑7.00001‑1
    [Google Scholar]
  58. VenkatramanN. SilmanD. FolegattiP.M. HillA.V.S. Vaccines against Ebola virus.Vaccine201836365454545910.1016/j.vaccine.2017.07.054 28780120
    [Google Scholar]
  59. LiY. WangL. ZhuT. Establishing China’s National standard for the recombinant Adenovirus Type 5 Vector–Based Ebola vaccine (Ad5-EBOV) virus titer.Hum. Gene Ther. Clin. Dev.201829422623210.1089/humc.2018.129 30381976
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Henao-RestrepoA.M. CamachoA. LonginiI.M. Efficacy and effectiveness of an rVSV-vectored vaccine in preventing Ebola virus disease: Final results from the Guinea ring vaccination, open-label, cluster-randomised trial (Ebola Ça Suffit!).Lancet20173891006850551810.1016/S0140‑6736(16)32621‑6 28017403
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Munyeku-BazitamaY. Edidi-AtaniF. TakadaA. Non-Ebola Filoviruses: Potential threats to global health security.Viruses2024168117910.3390/v16081179 39205153
    [Google Scholar]
  62. AlabiA. KokouK. MahmoudouS. Replication, safety and immunogenicity of the vectored Ebola vaccine rVSV-ΔG-ZEBOV-GP in a sub-Saharan African paediatric population: A randomised controlled, open-label trial in children aged 1-12 years living in Lambaréné, Gabon.J. Infect.202489410623710.1016/j.jinf.2024.106237 39121969
    [Google Scholar]
  63. HagemanJ.C. HazimC. WilsonK. Infection prevention and control for Ebola in health care settings—West Africa and United States.MMWR Suppl.2016653505610.15585/mmwr.su6503a8 27390018
    [Google Scholar]
  64. OhimainE.I. Recent advances in the development of vaccines for Ebola virus disease.Virus Res.201621117418510.1016/j.virusres.2015.10.021 26596227
    [Google Scholar]
  65. KovyrshinaA.V. SizikovaT.E. LebedevV.N. Vaccines to prevent Ebola virus disease: Current challenges and perspectives.Probl. Virol.202368537238410.36233/0507‑4088‑193 38156572
    [Google Scholar]
  66. DolzhikovaI.V. ZubkovaO.V. TukhvatulinA.I. Safety and immunogenicity of GamEvac-Combi, a heterologous VSV- and Ad5-vectored Ebola vaccine: An open phase I/II trial in healthy adults in Russia.Hum. Vaccin. Immunother.201713361362010.1080/21645515.2016.1238535 28152326
    [Google Scholar]
  67. KiehM. RichertL. BeavoguiA.H. Randomized trial of vaccines for Zaire Ebola virus disease.N. Engl. J. Med.2022387262411242410.1056/NEJMoa2200072 36516078
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Mbala-KingebeniP. Villabona-ArenasC.J. VidalN. Rapid confirmation of the Zaire Ebola virus in the outbreak of the Equateur province in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Implications for public health interventions.Clin. Infect. Dis.201968233033310.1093/cid/ciy527 29961823
    [Google Scholar]
  69. GrayN. StringerB. BarkG. ‘When Ebola enters a home, a family, a community’: A qualitative study of population perspectives on Ebola control measures in rural and urban areas of Sierra Leone.PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.2018126e000646110.1371/journal.pntd.0006461 29883449
    [Google Scholar]
  70. CaleoG. DuncombeJ. JephcottF. The factors affecting household transmission dynamics and community compliance with Ebola control measures: a mixed-methods study in a rural village in Sierra Leone.BMC Public Health201818124810.1186/s12889‑018‑5158‑6 29439682
    [Google Scholar]
  71. SwansonK.C. AltareC. WessehC.S. Contact tracing performance during the Ebola epidemic in Liberia, 2014-2015.PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.2018129e000676210.1371/journal.pntd.0006762 30208032
    [Google Scholar]
  72. OkwareS.I. OmaswaF. TalisunaA. Managing Ebola from rural to urban slum settings: Experiences from Uganda.Afr. Health Sci.201515131232110.4314/ahs.v15i1.45 25834568
    [Google Scholar]
  73. BaselerL. ChertowD.S. JohnsonK.M. FeldmannH. MorensD.M. The pathogenesis of Ebola virus disease.Annu. Rev. Pathol.201712138741810.1146/annurev‑pathol‑052016‑100506 27959626
    [Google Scholar]
  74. ColtartCE LindseyB GhinaiI JohnsonAM HeymannDL The Ebola outbreak, 2013–2016: Old lessons for new epidemics. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci201732717212016029710.1098/rstb.2016.0297
    [Google Scholar]
  75. 2012
  76. AhmedA.M. El MasryM.S. A treatise on Ebola virus.Viral, Parasitic, Bacterial, and Fungal Infections.Elsevier202311712410.1016/B978‑0‑323‑85730‑7.00003‑5
    [Google Scholar]
  77. BrayM. MahantyS. Ebola hemorrhagic fever and septic shock.J. Infect. Dis.2003188111613161710.1086/379727 14639530
    [Google Scholar]
  78. LamontagneF. FowlerR.A. AdhikariN.K. Evidence-based guidelines for supportive care of patients with Ebola virus disease.Lancet20183911012170070810.1016/S0140‑6736(17)31795‑6 29054555
    [Google Scholar]
  79. DuraffourS. MalvyD. SissokoD. How to treat Ebola virus infections? A lesson from the field.Curr. Opin. Virol.20172491510.1016/j.coviro.2017.03.003 28410486
    [Google Scholar]
  80. SissokoD. LaouenanC. FolkessonE. Experimental treatment with favipiravir for Ebola virus disease (the JIKI Trial): A historically controlled, single-arm proof-of-concept trial in Guinea.PLoS Med.2016133e100196710.1371/journal.pmed.1001967 26930627
    [Google Scholar]
  81. DunningJ. KennedyS.B. AntierensA. Experimental treatment of Ebola virus disease with brincidofovir.PLoS One2016119e016219910.1371/journal.pone.0162199 27611077
    [Google Scholar]
  82. DunningJ. SahrF. RojekA. Experimental treatment of Ebola virus disease with TKM-130803: A single-arm phase 2 clinical trial.PLoS Med.2016134e100199710.1371/journal.pmed.1001997 27093560
    [Google Scholar]
  83. van GriensvenJ. EdwardsT. de LamballerieX. Evaluation of convalescent plasma for Ebola virus disease in Guinea.N. Engl. J. Med.20163741334210.1056/NEJMoa1511812 26735992
    [Google Scholar]
  84. SahrF. AnsumanaR. MassaquoiT.A. Evaluation of convalescent whole blood for treating Ebola Virus Disease in Freetown, Sierra Leone.J. Infect.201774330230910.1016/j.jinf.2016.11.009 27867062
    [Google Scholar]
  85. DörnemannJ. BurzioC. RonsseA. First newborn baby to receive experimental therapies survives Ebola virus disease.J. Infect. Dis.20172152jiw49310.1093/infdis/jiw493 28073857
    [Google Scholar]
  86. SivapalasingamS. KamalM. SlimR. Safety, pharmacokinetics, and immunogenicity of a co-formulated cocktail of three human monoclonal antibodies targeting Ebola virus glycoprotein in healthy adults: A randomised, first-in-human phase 1 study.Lancet Infect. Dis.201818888489310.1016/S1473‑3099(18)30397‑9 29929783
    [Google Scholar]
  87. DaveyR.T.Jr DoddL. ProschanM.A. A randomized, controlled trial of ZMapp for Ebola virus infection.N. Engl. J. Med.2016375151448145610.1056/NEJMoa1604330 27732819
    [Google Scholar]
  88. DaveyR.T.Jr DoddL. ProschanM.A. Team M-NPIS. A randomized, controlled trial of ZMapp for Ebola virus infection.N. Engl. J. Med.2016375151448145610.1056/NEJMoa1604330 27732819
    [Google Scholar]
  89. HusseinH.A. Brief review on Ebola virus disease and one health approach.Heliyon202398e1903610.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19036 37600424
    [Google Scholar]
  90. RayaproluV. FultonB.O. RafiqueA. ArturoE. WilliamsD. HariharanC. Structure of the Inmazeb cocktail and resistance to Ebola virus escape.Cell Host Microbe202331226027210.1016/j.chom.2023.01.002
    [Google Scholar]
  91. BeechingNJ FenechM HoulihanCF Ebola virus disease. BMJ2014349dec10 28g734810.1136/bmj.g7348 25497512
    [Google Scholar]
  92. JacobS.T. CrozierI. FischerW.A.II Ebola virus disease.Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers2020611310.1038/s41572‑020‑0147‑3 32080199
    [Google Scholar]
  93. KilgoreP.E. GrabensteinJ.D. SalimA.M. RybakM. Treatment of ebola virus disease.Pharmacotherapy2015351435310.1002/phar.1545 25630412
    [Google Scholar]
  94. LuceyDR New treatments for Ebola virus disease.2019366l537110.1136/bmj.l5371
    [Google Scholar]
  95. YazdanpanahY. ArribasJ.R. MalvyD. Treatment of Ebola virus disease.Intensive Care Med.201541111511710.1007/s00134‑014‑3529‑8 25385474
    [Google Scholar]
  96. BixlerS.L. DuplantierA.J. BavariS. Discovering drugs for the treatment of Ebola virus.Curr. Treat. Options Infect. Dis.20179329931710.1007/s40506‑017‑0130‑z 28890666
    [Google Scholar]
  97. VenkatesanM.M. HartmanA.B. NewlandJ.W. Construction, characterization, and animal testing of WRSd1, a Shigella dysenteriae 1 vaccine.Infect. Immun.20027062950295810.1128/IAI.70.6.2950‑2958.2002 12010984
    [Google Scholar]
  98. TeckmanA.M. The bioterrorist threat of Ebola in East Africa and implications for global health and security.Global Policy Essay2013115
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Hosseini DoustR. HatamiH. IzadiM. HosseiniM. Medical management of infectious diseases in natural disasters and biological threats.Journal of Military Medicine200683219229
    [Google Scholar]
  100. PowersS. EscajedaJ. GlauserJ. Updates to disaster management strategies for CDC category a bioterrorism agents.Curr. Emerg. Hosp. Med. Rep.2024122535910.1007/s40138‑024‑00290‑x
    [Google Scholar]
  101. PassiD. SharmaS. DuttaS.R. DudejaP. SharmaV. Ebola virus disease (the killer virus): Another threat to humans and bioterrorism: Brief review and recent updates.J. Clin. Diagn. Res.201596LE01LE0810.7860/JCDR/2015/13062.6100 26266139
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Obeng-KusiM. MartinJ. AbrahamI. The economic burden of Ebola virus disease: A review and recommendations for analysis.J. Med. Econ.202427130932310.1080/13696998.2024.2313358 38299454
    [Google Scholar]
  103. NuzzoJ.B. InglesbyT.V. Ramping up the response to Ebola.N. Engl. J. Med.2018379262490249110.1056/NEJMp1814296 30485155
    [Google Scholar]
  104. BartschS.M. GorhamK. LeeB.Y. The cost of an Ebola case.Pathog. Glob. Health201510914910.1179/2047773214Y.0000000169 25578284
    [Google Scholar]
  105. KellerborgK. BrouwerW. van BaalP. Costs and benefits of early response in the Ebola virus disease outbreak in Sierra Leone.Cost Eff. Resour. Alloc.20201811310.1186/s12962‑020‑00207‑x 32190010
    [Google Scholar]
  106. HuberC. FinelliL. StevensW. The economic and social burden of the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa.J. Infect. Dis.2018218Suppl. 5S698S70410.1093/infdis/jiy213 30321368
    [Google Scholar]
  107. ZengW. SamahaH. YaoM. The cost of public health interventions to respond to the 10th Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.BMJ Glob. Health2023810e01266010.1136/bmjgh‑2023‑012660 37848269
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/iddt/10.2174/0118715265340884250107055339
Loading
/content/journals/iddt/10.2174/0118715265340884250107055339
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplements

Supplementary material is available on the publisher's website along with the published article.

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test