Small Molecule Activators of the Insulin Receptor: Potential New Therapeutic Agents for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus

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Diabetes Mellitus refers to a spectrum of syndromes characterized by abnormally high levels of glucose in blood. These syndromes are associated with an absolute (Type 1 diabetes) or relative (Type 2 diabetes) deficiency of insulin, coupled with varying degrees of peripheral resistance to the actions of insulin. Clinical studies have shown that controlling hyperglycemia significantly reduces the appearance and progression of the vascular complications associated with diabetes. Insulin's regulation of glucose homeostasis is mediated by a cascade of signaling events that take place upon insulin binding to its cell surface receptor. Autophosphorylation of the receptor and activation of its intrinsic tyrosine kinase are critical processes for transmitting these intracellular signals. Type 1 diabetes patients depend on exogenous insulin to achieve these effects, whereas Type 2 diabetes patients can accomplish a similar response through oral medications that increase the production of endogenous insulin or enhance its actions on the target tissues. Current biochemical and clinical evidence suggests that defects within the insulin receptor itself may be a cause of insulin resistance leading to Type 2 diabetes. This review focuses on the insulin receptor as a target for therapeutic intervention, and describes the recent discovery of small molecules that act on the receptor and either enhance or directly emulate the actions of insulin both in vitro and in vivo.